tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-78955705752962680372024-03-07T22:58:09.787-08:00WEDDING CEREMONIEScome to see wide range of different types of WEDDING ceremonies in different religions.Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger22125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-73572556417978926092008-03-28T14:03:00.001-07:002008-03-28T14:03:56.706-07:00Wedding cake<h1 class="firstHeading">Wedding cake</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="dablink">For the Rome monument known as the wedding cake, see Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II.</div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A contemporary White wedding cake" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/Whitweddingcake.jpg/180px-Whitweddingcake.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="241" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A contemporary White wedding cake</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A German wedding cake" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hochzeitstorte.jpg/180px-Hochzeitstorte.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="168" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A German wedding cake</div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>wedding cake</b> is the traditional cake served to the guests at a wedding reception (or in parts of England, at a wedding breakfast) after a wedding. In modern western culture, it is usually a large cake, multi-layered or tiered, and heavily decorated with icing, occasionally over a layer of marzipan or fondant, topped with a small statue representing the couple. Other common motifs include doves, gold rings and horseshoes, the latter symbolising good luck. Achieving a dense, strong cake that can support the decorations while remaining edible can be considered the epitome of the baker's art and skill. The average cost of a wedding cake in the U.S. in 2005 was $543.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup></p> <p>Tradition generally requires that the first cut of the cake be performed by bride and groom together, often with a ceremonial knife or even a sword. An older, archaic tradition had the bride serve all portions to the groom's family as a symbolic transfer of her household labor from her family to the groom's family.</p> <p>Tradition may also dictate that the bride and groom feed the first bites of this cake to each other. Again, this may symbolize the new family unit formed and the replacement of the old parent-child union.</p> <p>Other guests may then partake of the cake, portions may be taken home or shipped to people who missed the festivities. (An old tradition held that if a bridesmaid slept with a piece of wedding cake beneath her pillow she might dream of her future husband.)</p> <p>A portion may be stored, and eaten by the couple at their first wedding anniversary, or at the christening of their first child. Sometimes this portion is the top tier, and sometimes a portion of the piece from which the bride and groom fed each other, depending on the local customs. The portion of the cake may be frozen for this purpose; the top tier of the cake may sometimes consist of fruitcake, which could be stored for a great length of time.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Modern adaptions</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="History" id="History"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A couple cutting a cake." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/20/Wedding_cake.jpg/180px-Wedding_cake.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="177" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A couple cutting a cake.</div> </div> </div> <p>The origins of the tradition of the wedding cake date back to <span class="mw-redirect">medieval</span> times, when each guest at a wedding was supposed to bring a small cake, the cakes would be stacked on the table in levels and layers (If the bride and groom were able to kiss over the top of the stack it was considered good luck). These cake stacks would eventually merge into one cake and evolve into the modern wedding cake. Sweets are traditional at many celebrations for most if not all cultures worldwide. Ancient Roman records detail sweets distributed at weddings. The book <span class="new">Folklore Myths and Legends of Britain</span> details the ancient Roman practice of dropping a wedding cake on the head of the bride. Medieval and Renaissance resources also mention large cakes at weddings. Such cakes may have been fruitcake.</p> <p>A large cake can take a long time to make, and without modern refrigeration, a heavy fat and sugar frosting may have prevented spoilage by limiting moisture exposure. Another possibility is the use of sugar and fat required satisfying the need for conspicuous consumption for the families involved in the wedding.</p> <p>The tiered design of the wedding cake originates from the tiered spire of a well known medieval church in London, England, called St Bride's Church.</p> <p>Henry VIII of England enacted a law specifying the quantity of sugar a cake may have, possibly to control or tax this prevailing convention.</p> <p>During World War II, sugar was rationed in Great Britain, so icing could not be made, and cakes were reduced in size. To overcome this cakes were often served inside a box, which had been decorated with <span class="mw-redirect">plaster of Paris</span>, to resemble a larger, traditional cake.</p> <p><a name="Modern_adaptions" id="Modern_adaptions"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Modern adaptions</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="White chocolate cupcakes arranged for a wedding." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b3/White_Chocolate_Cups_Cake_with_Red_Lillies.jpg/180px-White_Chocolate_Cups_Cake_with_Red_Lillies.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="250" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> White chocolate cupcakes arranged for a wedding.</div> </div> </div> <p>Recently some western weddings have started to use <span class="mw-redirect">cupcakes</span> or other individually sized dessert items in place of a larger tiered cake. These individual cakes are often arranged in tiers to represent the shape of the traditional tiered cake.</p> <p>Wedding cake toppers are small models that sit on top of the cake, normally a representation of a bride and groom in formal wedding attire. This custom was dominant in US wedding in the 1950s where it represented togetherness.<sup id="cite_ref-CD_Cake_Toppers_0" class="reference">[2]</sup> Modern weddings have embraced more variety in design and significance. Wedding toppers today are often figures that indicate shared hobbies or other passions.<sup id="cite_ref-CD_Cake_Toppers_1" class="reference">[2]</sup></p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Not all wedding cakes are traditional - this is a novelty wedding cake depicting the newly married couple." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Wedding_cake_2004_SMC.jpg/180px-Wedding_cake_2004_SMC.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="135" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Not all wedding cakes are traditional - this is a novelty wedding cake depicting the newly married couple.</div> </div> </div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-87358967097134477882008-03-28T13:50:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:51:54.962-07:00Wedding photography<h1 class="firstHeading">Wedding photography</h1><!-- start content --> <div class="floatright"><span><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/White-wedding-dress.jpg/180px-White-wedding-dress.jpg" border="0" height="270" width="180" /></span></span></div> <p><b>Wedding photography</b> is a major commercial endeavor that supports the bulk of the efforts for many photography studios or independent photographers.</p> <div class="tright portal" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); margin: 0.5em 0pt 0.5em 0.5em; background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; font-size: 85%;"> <table style="background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" width="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div style="overflow: hidden; position: relative; width: 32px; height: 28px;"> <div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Large_format_camera_lens.jpg/22px-Large_format_camera_lens.jpg" border="0" height="27" width="22" /></span></div> </div> </td> <td><i><b>Photography Portal</b></i></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Technology</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Approaches</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Albums, prints, and other products</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Profession</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Professional organizations</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="History" id="History"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 177px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A 1942 wedding with bride in traditional long white wedding dress." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/89/Wedding-1942.png/175px-Wedding-1942.png" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="276" width="175" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A 1942 wedding with bride in traditional long white wedding dress.</div> </div> </div> <p>Like the technology of photography itself, the practice of wedding photography has evolved and grown since the invention of the art form in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. In fact, an early <span class="external text">photograph</span>, recorded some 14 years after the fact, may be a recreation for the camera of the 1840 wedding of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert. However in the early days of photography, most couples of more humble means did not hire a photographer to record the actual wedding itself. Until the later half of the 19th century, most people didn’t pose for formal wedding photos during the wedding. Rather they might pose for a formal photo in their best clothes before or after a wedding. In the late 1860s, more couples started posing in their wedding clothes or sometimes hired a photographer to come to the wedding venue. <i>(See the gallery at White wedding.)</i></p> <p>Due to the nature of the bulky equipment and lighting issues, wedding photography was largely a studio practice for most of the late 1800s. Over time, technology improved, but many couples still might only pose for a single wedding portrait. Wedding albums started becoming more commonplace towards the 1880s. By then, the photographer would start including the wedding party in the photographs. Often the wedding gifts would be laid out and recorded in the photographs as well.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup></p> <p>In the beginning of the 20th century, color photography became available, but color photography was still too unreliable and expensive so most wedding photography was still practiced in black and white. The concept of capturing the wedding "event" came about after the Second World War. Using film roll technology and improved lighting techniques available with the invention of the compact <span class="mw-redirect">flash bulb</span>, often photographers would simply show up at a wedding and try to sell the photos later. Despite the initial low quality photographs that often resulted, the competition forced the studio photographers to start working on location.</p> <p>Initially, professional studio photographers might bring a lot of bulky equipment, thus limiting their ability to record the entire event. Even candid photos were more often staged after the ceremony. In the 1970s the more modern approach to recording the entire wedding event started evolving into the practice as we know it today.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup></p> <p><a name="Technology" id="Technology"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[edit]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Technology</span></h2> <p>During the film era, photographers favored color negative film and medium-format cameras, especially by Hasselblad. Today, many more weddings are photographed with <span class="mw-redirect">digital SLR</span> cameras as the digital convenience provides quick detection of lighting mistakes and allows creative approaches to be reviewed immediately.</p> <p>In spite of diminishing film use, some photographers continue to shoot with film as they prefer the film aesthetic, while others are of the opinion that negative film captures more information than digital technology, with less margin for exposure error. Certainly true in some cases, it should be noted that exposure latitude inherent in a camera's native <span class="mw-redirect">RAW image format</span> (which allows for more under- and over- exposure than JPEG<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup>) varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. All forms of RAW have a degree of exposure latitude which exceeds slide film - to which digital capture is commonly compared.</p> <p>Currently however, it is fair to say that many professional labs have a greater capacity to provide services in post-production for film compared with digital<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>, such as quickly generate adequate prints in the event of some over- or under- exposure. This should change over time, with manufacturers like Kodak announcing a commitment to further develop streamlined services in the area of professional digital lab output.</p> <p>Technology has evolved with the use of remote triggers and flashes. Wedding photographers are now able to take advantage of travelling light and having the ability to use creative lighting.</p> <p><a name="Approaches" id="Approaches"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Approaches</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 282px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Bride&groom in a park. Editorial style. Subjects are posed in photojournalistic style ." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/77/Wedding884.jpg/280px-Wedding884.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="187" width="280" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Bride&groom in a park. Editorial style. Subjects are posed in photojournalistic style .</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 177px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A photojournalistic wedding image capturing the drama of the moment." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8b/Bride-boquet-toss.jpg/175px-Bride-boquet-toss.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="263" width="175" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A photojournalistic wedding image capturing the drama of the moment.</div> </div> </div> <p>There are two primary approaches to wedding photography that are recognized today: Traditional and Photojournalistic. Traditional wedding photography provides for more classically posed images and a great deal of photographer control and interaction on the day of the wedding. Photojournalistic wedding photography takes its cue from editorial reporting styles and focuses more on candid and unposed images with little photographer interaction. These are two extremes and many of today's photographers will fall somewhere in the middle of these two styles.</p> <p>A third style that is becoming more and more in demand is a fashion-based approach. In contemporary/fashion-based wedding photography, photojournalistic images of the events of the day are combined with posed images that are inspired by editorial fashion photography as would be found in magazines like <span class="mw-redirect">Vogue</span> or Vanity Fair.</p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 282px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A bride arriving at the venue, with her father also in the car. The black and white texture, together with her expression, and the composition of the photograph make for a picture that evokes some of the emotion from the day." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/24/Contemporary_Wedding_Picture.jpg/280px-Contemporary_Wedding_Picture.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="161" width="280" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A bride arriving at the venue, with her father also in the car. The black and white texture, together with her expression, and the composition of the photograph make for a picture that evokes some of the emotion from the day.</div> </div> </div> <p>The term <i>contemporary wedding photography</i> is used to describe wedding photography that is not of a <span class="mw-redirect">traditional</span> nature. The emphasis in contemporary photography is to capture the story and atmosphere from the day, so the viewer has an appreciation of what the wedding was like, rather than a series of pre-determined poses. However, this term can be mistaken for meaning any photograph that is not posed or formal. The advent and advancement of digital cameras and increased use of the internet mean that many people can offer their services as a wedding photographer. However, contemporary wedding photography is more than just not taking very formal photographs and involves the use of composition, lighting and timing to capture photographs that have a strong visual appeal.</p> <p>There is some uncertainty over what constitutes contemporary and how this differs from other forms of wedding photography. The PSA Journal, March 1994, records a debate on this subject.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup>. This highlights the difficulty with the word <b>contemporary</b> when defining photographic expression, as some feel this term is not sufficiently defined. For example, is photojournalism contemporary or are they different? Photojournalism is easier to define, as the term infers the photography is by its nature similar to journalism, where the emphasis is upon reporting and recording events in a newsworthy manner, whereas contemporary may include an element of photojournalism but is not exclusively that style of photography.</p> <p><a name="Albums.2C_prints.2C_and_other_products" id="Albums.2C_prints.2C_and_other_products"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Albums, prints, and other products</span></h2> <p>A contemporary wedding photographer will usually need to provide some or all of the following:</p> <ul><li>Formal portraiture in the studio (for either the wedding and/or the engagement photos).</li><li>Outdoor photography (often at a park, beach or scenic location on the day of the wedding and/or for engagement photos).</li><li>Indoor photography at a church, temple or other private venue during the ceremony and reception.</li><li>Both posed and candid (photojournalistic) shots of the wedding couple and their guests at the religious or civil ceremony and the reception that follows.</li><li>Digital services such as digital prints or slides shows.</li><li>Albums (either traditional or the more contemporary flush mount type of album).</li></ul> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 227px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A sample two-page spread from a contemporary flush mount wedding album." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6d/Wedding-album-sample.jpg/225px-Wedding-album-sample.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="150" width="225" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A sample two-page spread from a contemporary flush mount wedding album.</div> </div> </div> <p>The range of deliverables that a wedding photographer presents is varied. There is no standard as to what is included in a wedding coverage or package, so products vary regionally and from photographer to photographer, as do the number of images provided.</p> <p>Most photographers provide a set of proofs (usually unretouched, edited images) for the clients to view. Photographers may provide hard copy proofs in the form of 4x5 or 4x6 prints, a "magazine" of images with thumbnail sized pictures on multiple pages, an online proof gallery, images on CD or DVD in the form of a gallery or a slideshow, or a combination of the above. Some photographers provide these proofs for the client to keep, and some photographers require the client to make final print choices from the proofs and then return them or purchase them at an additional cost.</p> <p>There are a wide variety of albums and manufacturers available and photographers may provide traditional matted albums, digitally designed "coffee table" albums, contemporary flush mount albums, hardbound books, scrapbook style albums or a combination of any of the above. Albums may be included as part of a pre-purchased package, or they may be added as an after-wedding purchase. Not all photographers provide albums; some may prefer to provide prints and/or files and let clients make their own albums.</p> <p>Most photographers allow clients to purchase additional prints for themselves or their families. Many photographers now provide online sales either through galleries located on their own websites or through partnerships with other vendors. Those vendors typically host the images and provide the back end sales mechanism for the photographer; the photographer sets his or her own prices and the vendor takes a commission or charges a flat fee.</p> <p>With the increased ability of consumers to scan images and get high quality prints with inexpensive scanners and printers, some photographers are also including high resolution files in their packages. These photographers allow their clients limited rights to reproduce the images for their personal use, while retaining the copyright. Not all photographers release files and those who do will most likely charge a premium for them, since releasing files means giving up any after wedding print or album sales for the most part.</p> <p>Photographers who do not retain copyright of the images often charge more for their services. In these cases the photographer provides the client with the digital images as part of the wedding package. The client then has unrestricted use of the images and can print any they may desire.</p> <p><a name="Profession" id="Profession"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Profession</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 282px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A bride and groom are posed for this location shot using available lighting during the pre-twilight moments of the day due to the desirable soft lighting effects." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Bride-groom-kiss.jpg/280px-Bride-groom-kiss.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="191" width="280" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A bride and groom are posed for this location shot using available lighting during the pre-twilight moments of the day due to the desirable soft lighting effects.</div> </div> </div> <p>The wedding photography industry is home to some of the most respected names within the photography industry, including celebrity wedding photographer Joe Buissink, New York based Christian Oth, California's Mike Colon, Canada's Jesh De Rox, The Bebb's and Denis Reggie. Some of these figures were recently listed in PopPhoto's Top 10 Wedding Photographers in the World.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup> These figures represent the historical rise of wedding photojournalism, fashion, couture-style portraits and all digital work-flow.</p> <p>As a wedding is a one-time event, the photographer must be prepared for the unexpected. Shooting a wedding is both exhausting and invigorating as the photographer is constantly looking for good angles and opportunities for candid shots. Communication and planning time lines before the event will alleviate many of the stresses associated with photographing a wedding. An ability to tactfully take charge also helps - particularly when photographing large groups or families - a common expectation after the ceremony. Having a run list with all of the expected shots is also a useful tool. A photographer may work with an assistant who can carry equipment, arrange guests and assist in the shooting through clothing adjustments or the holding up of reflectors.</p> <p>Wedding photographers usually have an office or studio which can double as a retail photography studio. In bigger cities you might find dedicated wedding studios that only shoot weddings and may have large studios equipped with make-up and hair and gowns ready for the bride to wear. Some studios also have arrangements with bridal shops allowing the bride to try several gowns during her portrait session.</p> <p><a name="Professional_organizations" id="Professional_organizations"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Professional organizations</span></h2> <p>Organizations such as the Professional Photographers of America (PPA) and Wedding and Portrait Photographers International (WPPI) support the art and business of wedding photography. Standards and requirements for professional organizations vary, but membership often indicates a photographer is insured which means if they should lose or ruin a large number of images, they can compensate such errors for their clients. Professional organizations offer training, professional competition, and support to members as well as directory services to help with marketing.</p> <p><br /></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-85627780426252182502008-03-28T13:48:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:49:21.259-07:00Wedding ring<h1 class="firstHeading">Wedding ring</h1><!-- start content --> <p>A <b>wedding ring</b> or <b>wedding band</b> consists of a precious metal <span class="mw-redirect">ring</span>. In certain countries it is worn on the base of the left ring finger. In other parts of the world, it is worn on the right ring finger (see Post-wedding customs below).</p> <p>Traditionally, in India and those practicing Hinduism, a toe ring or <i>bichiya</i> is worn instead of a ring on a finger.</p> <p>Such a ring symbolizes marriage: a spouse wears it to indicate a marital commitment to fidelity. The European custom of wearing such a ring has spread widely beyond Europe.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 212px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A white gold wedding ring." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Weddingring.JPG/210px-Weddingring.JPG" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="157" width="210" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A white gold wedding ring.</div> </div> </div> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Traditional customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-wedding customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding ceremony customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Post-wedding customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Post funeral</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary usage</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Materials</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Styles, patterns, fashions</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding ceremonies that reference rings</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a name="Traditional_customs" id="Traditional_customs"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Traditional customs</span></h2> <p><a name="Pre-wedding_customs" id="Pre-wedding_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Pre-wedding customs</span></h3> <p>According to some customs, the wedding ring forms the last in a series of gifts, which also may include the engagement ring, traditionally given as a betrothal present. Other more recent traditions, encouraged by the jewelry trade, seek to expand the idea of a series of ring-gifts with the promise ring, often given when serious courting begins, and the eternity ring, which symbolizes the renewal or ongoing nature of a lasting marriage, sometimes given after the birth of a first child; and a trilogy ring, usually displaying three brilliant-cut round diamonds each, in turn, representing the past, present and future of a relationship.</p> <p>A European tradition encourages the engraving of the name of one's intended spouse and the date of one's intended marriage on the inside surface of wedding rings, thus strengthening the symbolism and sentimentality of the rings as they become family heirlooms.</p> <p>Among <span class="mw-redirect">Eastern Orthodox</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">Eastern Catholic</span> Christians, the exchange of rings are not technically part of the wedding service, but rather are exchanged at the betrothal. It is always a two-ring ceremony. Traditionally, the groom's ring will be made of gold, and the bride's ring made of silver,<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup> and are blessed by the priest with holy water. The priest blesses the groom with the bride's ring, and places it on the ring finger of his left hand; he then blesses the bride with the groom's ring and places it on her finger. The rings are then exchanged three times either by the priest or by the best man.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup> While in modern times, the ceremony of betrothal is often performed immediately before the wedding (or "crowning" as it is more properly called), the actual symbolic act of marriage is not the exchange of rings, but the placing of crowns on the head of the bride and groom, and their partaking three times of the "common cup".</p> <p><a name="Wedding_ceremony_customs" id="Wedding_ceremony_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding ceremony customs</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Weddingring-JH.jpg/180px-Weddingring-JH.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="120" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> </div> </div> </div> <p>In British tradition, the <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span> has a traditional duty of keeping track of a marrying couple's wedding ring(s) and to produce them at the symbolic moment of the giving and receiving of the ring(s) during the traditional marriage ceremony.</p> <p>In more elaborate weddings, a <span class="mw-redirect">ring bearer</span> (usually a young boy that is part of the family of the bride or groom) may assist in the ceremonial parading of the ring(s) into the ceremony, often on a special cushion or pillow(s).</p> <p>In older times, the wedding rings did not only signify a sign of love, but were also linked to the bestowal of 'earnest money'. According to the prayer book of Edward VI: after the words 'with this ring I thee wed' follow the words 'This gold and silver I give thee', at which point the groom was supposed to hand a leather purse filled with gold and silver coins to the bride. <sup id="cite_ref-KunzRing_2-0" class="reference">[3]</sup></p> <p>Not only in England was the wedding ring considered more connected to the exchange of valuables at the moment of the wedding than a symbol of eternal love and devotion but in most other European countries as well. Sometimes it went as far as being a conditional exchange as this German formula shows: 'I give you this ring as a sign of the marriage which has been promised between us, provided your father gives with you a marriage portion of 1000 Reichsthalers'. <sup id="cite_ref-KunzRing_2-1" class="reference">[3]</sup></p> <p>In some European countries, the wedding ring is the same as the engagement ring and changes its status through engraving and the change of the hand on which to wear it. If the wedding ring is different from the engagement ring, the question whether or not the engagement ring should be worn during the ceremony leaves a few options. The bride may wear it on her left ring finger and have the groom put the wedding band over it. She may also wear it on her right ring finger. The bride may also continue wearing the rings on different hands after the wedding – this may prevent the engagement ring from scratching and scuffing. Another option is to have the main bridesmaid keep the ring during the ceremony – there are a variety ways to keep it: in a pouch, on a plate, etc. After the ceremony, the ring can be placed back on either the left or the right hand.</p> <p><a name="Post-wedding_customs" id="Post-wedding_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Post-wedding customs</span></h3> <p>In some Western countries (<span class="mw-redirect">UK</span>, other Commonwealth nations, Ireland, the United States, Mexico, Brazil, Iran, Chile, Italy, France, Sweden, and Slovenia), the wedding ring is worn on the left hand. This choice of finger relates to traditions purportedly dating to classical times, from an early usage reportedly referring to the fourth finger of the left hand as containing the <i>vena amoris</i> or "vein of love"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup>. At least in part due to this tradition, it became acceptable to wear the wedding ring on this finger. By wearing rings on the fourth finger of their left hands, a married couple symbolically declares their eternal love for each other. This has now become a matter of tradition and etiquette in these countries.</p> <p>In other countries such as Germany, Greece, Russia, Spain, Slovakia, India, Colombia, Venezuela, and Poland, however, it is worn on the right hand. <span class="mw-redirect">Orthodox Christians</span> and Eastern Europeans also traditionally wear the wedding band on the right hand. <span class="mw-redirect">Jewish</span> couples wear the wedding ring on the left hand, even though it is placed on the right hand during the marriage ceremony. In <span class="mw-redirect">The Netherlands</span>, Catholic people wear it on the left, all others on the right; in Austria, Catholic people wear it on the right. In Belgium, the choice of hand depends on the region of the country. Greek people, many being Orthodox Christians, also wear the wedding rings on the right hand in keeping with Greek tradition. A traditional reason to wear the wedding ring on the right hand stems from Roman custom. The Latin word for left is "sinister", which in addition to this sense also has the same senses as the English word. The Latin word for right is "dexter", a word that evolved into "dexterity". Hence, the left hand had a negative connotation and the right a good one.</p> <p><a name="Post_funeral" id="Post_funeral"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Post funeral</span></h3> <p>Although in law, and in most religions, a marriage ends on first death, conventions (and perceived symbolism) around the wearing of wedding rings after a partner's death vary considerably. Traditions include the surviving spouse continuing to wear their own wedding ring after their partner's death, but on the ring finger of the other hand; removing their wedding ring at their partner's funeral; and taking charge of, and wearing (sometimes on the same finger as their own), their dead partner's ring. In many cultures, the length of time and way in which a surviving spouse wears their ring is not dictated by a common custom, but varies by family tradition and choice of the surviving spouse.</p> <p><a name="Contemporary_usage" id="Contemporary_usage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Contemporary usage</span></h2> <p>In the United Kingdom and the United States in past generations, women wore wedding bands much more commonly than men did. Today, both partners often wear wedding rings, though for work-related reasons, personal comfort or safety a spouse may remove it from time to time. Others may object to the idea of precious metals, or dislike the idea of declaring their legal status through jewelry. Either partner may also wear a wedding ring on a chain around the neck, thus conveying the socially equivalent message to wearing it on a finger.</p> <p>The <i>double-ring ceremony</i>, or use of wedding rings for both partners, is a relatively recent innovation. The American jewellery industry started a marketing campaign aimed at encouraging this practice in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup> Learning from marketing lessons of the 1920s, changing economic times, and the impact of World War II, led to a more successful marketing campaign, and by the late 1940s, double-ring ceremonies made up for 80% of all weddings, as opposed to 15% before the Great Depression.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference">[6]</sup></p> <p>One interpretation states that the woman wears the wedding ring below the engagement ring, thus making it closer to the heart. Another practice holds that the woman should wear the wedding ring above the engagement ring, thus sealing the atmosphere of the engagement into the marriage. Still others prefer that the wedding ring should be worn alone. Further, modern ring sets in the United States are often marketed as a three-piece set, including the man's wedding band, the woman's engagement ring, and a slender band that is mounted to the engagement ring before the wedding, converting it into a single, permanent wedding ring.</p> <p><a name="Materials" id="Materials"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Materials</span></h2> <p>Most religious marital ceremonies accept a band of any material to symbolize the taking of marriage vows, with unusual substitutions permitted in marriages under unusual circumstances.</p> <p>To make wedding rings, <span class="mw-redirect">jewellers</span> most commonly use a precious yellow alloy of gold, hardened with copper, tin and bismuth. Platinum and white alloys of gold are also used, although the slightly yellow "white" gold alloys of the past have been largely replaced by a cheaper nickel-gold alloy, covered with a thin plating of rhodium which must be reapplied after some years of wear. Titanium has recently become a popular material for wedding bands, due to its durability, affordability, and gunmetal grey colour. Tungsten carbide, often with gold or platinum inlays, is recently being used as well. The least expensive material in common use is nickel silver for those who prefer its appearance or cost. Marrying couples are also beginning to use stainless steel, which has the same durability as platinum or titanium, and can accept a finer finish than the latter. Silver, copper, brass and other cheaper metals do not occur as frequently because they corrode over time and thus do not convey a sense of permanence. Aluminium or poisonous metals are almost never used.</p> <p>Contrary to popular urban legend, titanium rings can be removed quite easily using a jeweller's <span class="new">ring cutter</span> or specialized ring opening pliers.</p> <p><a name="Styles.2C_patterns.2C_fashions" id="Styles.2C_patterns.2C_fashions"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Styles, patterns, fashions</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 212px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A 14th century Jewish wedding ring" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Jewish_wedding_ring_MNMA_Cl20658.jpg/210px-Jewish_wedding_ring_MNMA_Cl20658.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="166" width="210" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A 14th century Jewish wedding ring</div> </div> </div> <p>A plain gold band is the most popular pattern. Medical personnel commonly wear it because it can be kept very clean. Women usually wear narrow bands, while men wear broader bands.</p> <p>In France and French-speaking countries, a common pattern consists of three interwoven rings. They stand for the Christian virtues of "faith, hope and love", where "love" equates to that particular type of perfect disinterested love indicated by the ancient Greek word <i>agape</i>. Provocatively, this pattern slides off quickly, because the rings flow over each other.</p> <p>Women in Greek and Anatolian cultures sometimes receive and wear puzzle rings – sets of interlocking metal bands that one must arrange just so in order to form a single ring. Men wryly give them as a test of their woman's monogamy. Even when the woman masters the puzzle, she still cannot remove and replace the ring quickly.</p> <p>In North America and some European countries, many married women wear two rings on the same finger: an engagement ring and a plain wedding band. Couples often purchase such rings as a pair of bands designed to fit together. In addition, some women who have been married a long time wear three rings on their finger (from hand to tip): a wedding band, an engagement ring, and an <span class="mw-redirect">eternity ring</span>. This three-ring combination is especially common in the <span class="mw-redirect">UK</span>.</p> <p>Engraving wedding bands is also becoming very popular in the United States.</p> <p>Celtic-style wedding bands have become more popular in the U.S., Canada and other English-speaking countries with large numbers of people claiming Irish or Scottish descent. This style of wedding band will often be engraved or embossed with a Celtic knot design, which is meant to symbolize oneness and continuity. Sometimes a <span class="mw-redirect">Claddagh</span> design is also used to symbolize fidelity.</p> <p>Russian wedding rings are traditionally three interlocking bands of rose, white and yellow gold, worn on the right hand.<span class="external autonumber">[1]</span></p> <p><a name="Wedding_ceremonies_that_reference_rings" id="Wedding_ceremonies_that_reference_rings"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding ceremonies that reference rings</span></h2> <ul><li>Church of England (1662 Book of Common Prayer) - "With this ring I thee wed, with my body I thee worship, and with all my worldly goods I thee endow: In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference">[7]</sup></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Jewish</span> - "With this ring, you are consecrated to me according to the law of Moses and Israel." - Said in Hebrew by the groom at an Orthodox Jewish wedding and by both the bride and groom at a Reform Jewish wedding</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Roman Catholic</span> - "<i>N.</i>, take this ring as a sign of my love and fidelity. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference">[8]</sup></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Greek Orthodox</span> - "The servant of God (N.) is betrothed to the handmaid of God (N.), in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen." - from the Greek Orthodox Service of Betrothal, part of the Mysterion of Holy Matrimony, said while the Priest makes the Sign of the Cross with the rings over the bridegroom's head</li></ul>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-18734779587886160542008-03-28T13:47:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:48:14.656-07:00Wedding invitation<h1 class="firstHeading">Wedding invitation</h1><br /><table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"><tbody><tr><td class="ambox-image"><br /></td><td class="ambox-text"><span class="plainlinks"></span><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 252px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Modern Wedding Invitation" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/RedBumbleBeeInvitations.JPG/250px-RedBumbleBeeInvitations.JPG" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="188" width="250" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Modern Wedding Invitation</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Mix of wedding invitations" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Wedding-invitation-cards.jpg/200px-Wedding-invitation-cards.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="224" width="200" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Mix of wedding invitations</div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>wedding invitation</b> is a letter asking the recipient to attend a wedding. It is typically mailed four to six weeks before the wedding date. Wedding invitations may be printed using one of the following methods: engraving, lithography, thermography, letterpress printing and sometimes blind embossing. They can be ordered from an artist, or vendor, specializing in invitations. For the artistically inclined, they can be handmade.</p> <p>Often, wedding invitations are mailed in double envelopes. The inner envelope may be lined, is not gummed, and fits into the outer envelope. The outer envelope is gummed for sealing and addressing. Tissues are often provided by manufacturers to place over the engraved text, originally this tissue protected the engraving against smudging or blotting, but improved printing techniques mean they are now simply decorative.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup> Traditionally, the mother of the bride addresses the wedding invitations. However, if she chooses not to, the mother of the bride may outsource this responsibility to a professional calligrapher or a friend with good penmanship.</p> <p>In countries that issue them, the envelope may be franked with <span class="new">love stamps</span>. The United States postal service issues a love stamp each year specifically denominated to cover the double weight of the invitation and reply (a rate slightly less than the cost of two regular stamps).</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Response card</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Other items</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Save The Date</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">In pop culture</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Response_card" id="Response_card"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Response card</span></h2> <p>Along with the wedding invitation, the ensemble may also include a response card and envelope. The response card is traditionally used for gathering totals for the <span class="mw-redirect">caterer</span> and getting a general number of guests attending. The recipient is asked to mail back the response card roughly three weeks before the wedding or by the date indicated. The envelope is pre-addressed and pre-stamped by the wedding party for ease. A new more modern option is sending the response card as a pre-addressed and pre-stamped post card. Using the post card eliminates the need for an inner envelope for less formal weddings.</p> <p><a name="Other_items" id="Other_items"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Other items</span></h2> <p>Other pieces often included in the ensemble are the reception card or folder, map or direction card, and accommodation information. The reception card simply lists the addresses and times of any post-wedding events, such as a cocktail hour, dinner or dance. Map or direction cards provide details about the location of the wedding and reception. The accommodation information gives helpful tips about airfare, transportation or hotel arrangements for out-of-town guests. Local attractions may be featured as well. Often the accommodation information is sent in advance with the save the dates.</p> <p><a name="Save_The_Date" id="Save_The_Date"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Save The Date</span></h2> <p>A save the date is similar to an invitation and is mailed up to one year before the wedding date. Save the dates simply announce that the wedding date has been set and encourages recipients to plan for the event. It is not used as a substitute for the wedding invitation and typically mentions that an invitation will follow. The save the date can also allow you to let guests know what area of the country the wedding will be held. Save the Date cards are only necessary for weddings that occur on holidays or destination weddings. They are an optional piece for weddings not occurring on holidays or destination weddings.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-21251013390299165762008-03-28T13:43:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:45:54.415-07:00Participants in wedding ceremonies<h1 class="firstHeading">Participants in wedding ceremonies</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-merge"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-merge"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>In a traditional wedding, the <b>wedding party</b> refers to the group of people participating in the ceremony with the <i>bride</i> and <i>groom</i> (formally, <i>bridegroom</i>). The <b>bridal party</b> consists of the <i>maid of honor</i> (<i>matron of honor</i> if she is married) and the <i>bridesmaids</i>. The groom is accompanied by the <i>best man</i> and the <i>groomsmen</i>. Finally, any <i>flower girls</i> and <i>page boys</i> (including the <i>ringbearer</i>) are traditionally included in the wedding party.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Bride</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Attire</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Groom</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Customs</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Bridesmaid / Maid (Matron) of Honor</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">North America</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">United Kingdom</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Best man</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Duties</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Best man in various cultures</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Bridesmaids</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">"Bridesmaid" as an idiomatic term</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Groomsmen</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gifts</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Flower Girls</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Page Boys</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ringbearer</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Officiant/Celebrant</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Bride" id="Bride"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bride</span></h2> <div class="dablink">"Bride" redirects here. For other uses, see Bride (disambiguation).</div> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><span class="image"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;">: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><span class="extiw">Bride</span></b></i></div> </div> </div> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/50px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" border="0" height="52" width="50" /></span></span></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;">.</div> </div> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><span class="image"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;">: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><span class="extiw">Bride</span></b></i></div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>bride</b> is a female participant in a wedding ceremony: a woman about to be married, currently being married, or, in some uses, very recently married (applicable during the first year of wifehood). The term used to mean 'daughter-in-law', as newly married women at one time moved into the husband's family home. Further back, the word possibly comes from the Teutonic word for 'cook'.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup> A bride is typically attended by one or more bridesmaids or maids of honor. Her partner, if male, is the bridegroom or "groom", after the wedding, in marriage, her husband. In same-gender weddings, two feminine participants may both be termed brides. In some cultures, successful sexual intercourse between the bride and bridegroom is a required step to complete ("consummate") the wedding ceremony.</p> <p><a name="Attire" id="Attire"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Attire</span></h3> <p>In Europe and North America, the typical attire for a bride is a formal dress and sometimes a tiara. Usually, the dress is bought only for the wedding, and never worn again. For first marriages, a white wedding dress is usually worn, a tradition started by Queen Victoria's wedding. Etiquette once prescribed that a white dress should not be worn for subsequent marriages, since the wearing of white was mistakenly regarded by some as an ancient symbol of <span class="mw-redirect">virginity</span>, despite the fact that wearing white is a fairly recent development in wedding traditions. Today, brides may wear white, cream, or ivory dresses for any number of marriages; the color of the dress is not a comment on the bride's sexual history. In fact, up until the 19th century, the bride generally wore her best dress, whatever color it was, or ordered a new dress in her favorite color and expected to wear it again.</p> <p>In addition to the gown, the bride often wears a veil and carries a bouquet of flowers. A garter may also be worn by the bride, and later removed by the groom during the reception (US).</p> <p><a name="History" id="History"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 312px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A photograph of a wedding party probably from the late 1870s to 1880s.(Note the black or dark colored wedding dress which was common during the early to mid 19th century.)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cab-card-wis-front.jpg/310px-Cab-card-wis-front.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="203" width="310" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A photograph of a <span class="mw-redirect">wedding party</span> probably from the late 1870s to 1880s.<i>(Note the black or dark colored wedding dress which was common during the early to mid 19th century.)</i></div> </div> </div> <p>The term appears in combination with many words, some of them obsolete. Thus "bridegroom" is the newly married man, and "bride-bell," "bride-banquet" are old equivalents of wedding-bells, wedding-breakfast. "Bridal" (from <i>Bride-ale</i>), originally the wedding-feast itself, has grown into a general descriptive adjective, e.g. the <span class="mw-redirect"><i>bridal</i> party</span>, the <i>bridal</i> ceremony. The <i>bride-cake</i> had its origin in the Roman <i>confarreatio</i>, a form of marriage, the essential features of which were the eating by the couple of a cake made of salt, water and spelt flour, and the holding by the bride of three wheat-ears, a symbol of plenty.</p> <p>Under Tiberius the cake-eating fell into disuse, but the wheat ears survived. In the middle ages they were either worn or carried by the bride. Eventually it became the custom for the young girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken over the bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland to-day, an oatmeal cake being used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits began to take the form of small rectangular cakes made of eggs, milk, sugar, currants and spices. Every wedding guest had one at least, and the whole collection were thrown at the bride the instant she crossed the threshold. Those which lighted on her head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last these cakes became amalgamated into a large one which took on its full glories of almond paste and ornaments during Charles II's time. But even to-day in rural parishes, e.g. north Notts, wheat is thrown over the bridal couple with the cry "Bread for life and pudding for ever," expressive of a wish that the newly wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a very ancient custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the wish that the bridal may be fruitful.</p> <p>The <i>bride-cup</i> was the bowl or loving-cup in which the bridegroom pledged the bride, and she him. The custom of breaking this wine-cup, after the bridal couple had drained its contents, is common to both the Jews and the members of the Greek Church. The former dash it against the wall or on the ground, the latter tread it under foot. The phrase "bride-cup" was also sometimes used of the bowl of spiced wine prepared at night for the bridal couple. <i>Bride-favours</i>, anciently called bride-lace, were at first pieces of gold, silk or other lace, used to bind up the sprigs of rosemary formerly worn at weddings. These took later the form of bunches of ribbons, which were at last metamorphosed into rosettes.</p> <p><i>Bridegroom-men</i> and <i>bridesmaids</i> had formerly important duties. The men were called bride-knights, and represented a survival of the primitive days of marriage by capture, when a man called his friends in to assist to "lift" the bride. Bridesmaids were usual in Saxon England. The senior of them had personally to attend the bride for some days before the wedding. The making of the bridal wreath, the decoration of the tables for the wedding feast, the dressing of the bride, were among her special tasks. In the same way the senior groomsman (the <i>best man</i>) was the personal attendant of the husband.</p> <p>The <i>bride-wain</i>, the wagon in which the bride was driven to her new home, gave its name to the weddings of any poor deserving couple, who drove a "wain" round the village, collecting small sums of money or articles of furniture towards their housekeeping. These were called bidding-weddings, or bid-ales, which were in the nature of "benefit" feasts. So general is still the custom of "bidding-weddings" in Wales, that printers usually keep the form of invitation in type. Sometimes as many as six hundred couples will walk in the bridal procession.</p> <p>The <i>bride's wreath</i> is a Christian substitute for the gilt coronet all Jewish brides wore. The crowning of the bride is still observed by the Russians, and the Calvinists of Holland and Switzerland. The wearing of orange blossoms is said to have started with the Saracens, who regarded them as emblems of fecundity. It was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The <i>bride's veil</i> is the modern form of the <i>flammeum</i> or large yellow veil which completely enveloped the Greek and Roman brides during the ceremony. Such a covering is still in use among the Jews and the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup></p> <p><a name="Groom" id="Groom"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Groom</span></h2> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><span class="image"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;"><br /><div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><span class="extiw">Grooms</span></b></i></div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>bridegroom</b> (often shortened to <i><b>groom</b></i>) is a man who is about to be married, or who has just been married. His partner, if female, is known as the bride, who is typically attended by one or more bridesmaids and a maid or matron of honor. In same-gender weddings, two masculine participants may both be termed grooms. The groom will after that ceremony be called a husband of his new spouse.</p> <p><a name="Etymology" id="Etymology"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h3> <p>The word "bridegroom" is derived from <i>bride</i> and the archaic <i>guma</i>, "man", from the Indogermanic root of "earth" (for "ghmún"), which evolved into Latin <i>humanus</i> and Germanic and English "man" and "groom". Through folk etymology the word became assimilated to <i>groom,</i> meaning a servant.</p> <p><a name="Customs" id="Customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Customs</span></h3> <p>A bridegroom is typically attended by a best man and groomsmen.</p> <p>In western cultures, the groom usually wears a dark coloured suit or tuxedo during the wedding ceremony. In US tradition, at the end of the wedding, it is the groom's privilege to remove the bride's garter and toss it over his shoulder to the group of male guests, much like the "tossing of the bouquet" performed by the bride. It is traditional belief that whomever catches the garter will be the next to be married.</p> <p><a name="Bridesmaid_.2F_Maid_.28Matron.29_of_Honor" id="Bridesmaid_.2F_Maid_.28Matron.29_of_Honor"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bridesmaid / Maid (Matron) of Honor</span></h2> <p>The <b>bridesmaids</b>, possibly including a <b>maid of honor</b> (US) or chief bridesmaid, are members of the bride's <span class="mw-redirect">wedding party</span> in a wedding. Specifically, a maid of honor (or matron of honor, if the woman is married) is the primary attendant with the most honors and duties of the bridal party, and is considered the equivalent of the groom's <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span> or (if there are several bridesmaids) ushers.</p> <p><a name="North_America" id="North_America"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">North America</span></h3> <p>In North America, a wedding party might include several bridesmaids, but the maid of honor is the title and position held by the bride's chief attendant, typically her closest friend or sister. If she is married, the title <b>matron of honor</b> is used. In modern day weddings some brides opt to choose a long-time male friend or brother as their head attendant, using the title "Man of Honor".</p> <p>A bridesmaid's activities may be as many or as varied as she allows the bride to impose upon her. Her only required duty is to participate in the wedding ceremony. Typically, however, she is asked for help with the logistics of the wedding as an event, such as addressing invitations, and for her help as a friend, such as attending the bride as she shops for her wedding dress. Many brides expect a chief bridesmaid to arrange and pay for a bridal shower as well as the bachelorette party (US) or hen's night (Australia and UK).</p> <p>On the day of the wedding, her principal duty is to provide practical and emotional support. She might assist the bride with dressing and, if needed, help the bride manage her veil, a bouquet of flower, a prayer book, or the train of her wedding dress during the day. In a double-ring wedding, the chief bridesmaid is often entrusted with the groom's wedding ring until it is needed during the ceremony. Many brides ask bridesmaids, if they are adults, to be legal witnesses who sign the marriage license after the ceremony.</p> <p><a name="United_Kingdom" id="United_Kingdom"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">United Kingdom</span></h3> <p>In the United Kingdom, the term "maid of honour" originally referred to the female attendant of a queen. The term "bridesmaid" is normally used for a bridal attendant. However, when the attendant is married, or is a mature woman, the term "matron of honour" is more commonly used. The influence of American English has led to the Chief Bridesmaid sometimes being called the Maid of Honour.</p> <p>In the UK, a "maid of honour" is also a type of small cake.</p> <p><a name="Best_man" id="Best_man"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Best man</span></h2> <p>The <b>best man</b> is the chief male assistant to the <span class="mw-redirect">bridegroom</span> at a wedding. Usually the groom extends this honour to someone who is close to him, generally either a brother or his closest male friend. Alternatively, should one of the groom's male friends have been directly responsible for introducing the groom to his bride (or otherwise responsible for bringing them together), the honor of best man might be extended to him in gratitude. In a remarriage, a son of the groom may sometimes act as best man.</p> <p><a name="Duties" id="Duties"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Duties</span></h3> <p>In the context of a traditional American/British white wedding, the best man's duties typically include:</p> <ul><li>Organizing a bachelor party (U.S.) / stag night (U.K.) / buck's night (Aus.) for the groom</li><li>Possibly helping plan or organize some details of the wedding</li><li>Assisting with wedding-day logistics and unforeseen circumstances that arise</li><li>Assisting the groom on the morning of wedding day</li><li>Getting the groom to the wedding on time</li><li>Supervising the groomsmen or ushers</li><li>Ensuring the rings are brought to the ceremony (usually they will have been given to the best man either earlier in the day or previously) and then passing these to the bride and groom at the appropriate point in the ceremony</li><li>Acting as a legal witness to the marriage</li><li>Giving a speech at the wedding and thanking the bride's parents</li><li>Making a toast to the bride and groom at the reception</li><li>Dance with the <span class="mw-redirect">Maid of honor</span> and helping to ensure that other guests make it to the dance floor and dance</li><li>Decorating the car of the married couple</li><li>Returning the Groomsmen's tuxedos / morning suits (U.K.), if they are rented</li></ul> <p>In the US, the <span class="mw-redirect">groomsmen</span> assist the best man with these functions.</p> <p>When the groom wishes to give this honor to a woman, she may be termed the "best woman" or "best person", or may still be referred to as the 'best man'. The bride's equivalent of the best man is the <span class="mw-redirect">maid or matron of honour</span>. A neutral term is "honor attendant".</p> <p><a name="Best_man_in_various_cultures" id="Best_man_in_various_cultures"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Best man in various cultures</span></h3> <p>In Uganda a best man does what is described above but he is also challenged to guide the newlyweds in ways of marriage. This means that ideally a best man must be married, preferably to one wife and should be in position to give sound, tried and tested advice. A best man must be a confidant and be discreet about the details he shares with the new couple.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In Ukraine a best man is responsible for guarding a bride during the wedding. When he steps away traditionally a shoe gets stolen from the bride. Then the best man has to pay a ransom in exchange for returning the shoe -- usually by either drinking vodka or paying money.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since July 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In Bhutan the best man presents himself at the wedding as a ceremonial guardian to both bride and groom. Thereafter he performs for the guests before commencement of marriage. These performances can last for 5 hours with the exhausted best man returning to his wooden carriage very similar to a dog kennel. He remains there to watch on before joining the other guests to celebrate the special occasion - usually in a drunken stupor.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since August 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Bridesmaids" id="Bridesmaids"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bridesmaids</span></h2> <table align="right"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Portrait of two bridemaids." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Two_Bridesmaids_Curly_Updos.JPG/150px-Two_Bridesmaids_Curly_Updos.JPG" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="200" width="150" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Portrait of two bridemaids.</div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Bridesmaid and junior bridesmaid. North Carolina, U.S.A." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bridesmaid_and_junior_bridesmaid.jpg/150px-Bridesmaid_and_junior_bridesmaid.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="225" width="150" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Bridesmaid and junior bridesmaid. North Carolina, <span class="mw-redirect">U.S.A.</span></div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A young bridesmaid at a wedding in Thornbury Castle, South Gloucestershire, England" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Bridesmaid.arp.500pix.jpg/150px-Bridesmaid.arp.500pix.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="220" width="150" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A young bridesmaid at a wedding in Thornbury Castle, South Gloucestershire, England</div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>A <b>bridesmaid</b> is a girl or young woman who attends to the <span class="mw-redirect">bride</span> during or after a wedding or marriage ceremony. Traditionally, bridesmaids were chosen from unwed young women of marriageable age.</p> <p>In early Roman times, bridesmaids formed a kind of bridal infantry as they accompanied the bride to the groom's village. This "protective shield" of similarly outfitted bridesmaids was supposed to intervene if any wayward thugs or vengeful suitors tried to hurt the bride or steal her dowry.</p> <p>However, the Western bridesmaid tradition seems to have originated from later Roman law, which required ten witnesses at a wedding in order to outsmart evil spirits believed to attend marriage ceremonies. The bridesmaids and ushers dressed in identical clothing to the bride and groom, so that the evil spirits would not know who was getting married. Even as late as 19th century England, there was a belief that ill-wishers could administer curses and taint the wedding. In Victorian wedding photographs, for example, the bride and groom can look very similar to other members of the bridal party.</p> <p>A bridesmaid is often a close friend or sister. Often there is more than one bridesmaid: in modern times the bride chooses how many to ask. Historically, no person of status went out unattended, and the size of the retinue was closely calculated to be appropriate to the family's social status. Then, as now, a large group of bridesmaids provided an opportunity for showing off the family's social status and wealth. The principal bridesmaid, if one is so designated, is called the <span class="mw-redirect">maid of honor</span> if she is unmarried or the <span class="mw-redirect">matron of honor</span> if she is married. A junior bridesmaid is a girl who is clearly too young to be marriageable, but who is included as an honorary bridesmaid.</p> <p>Bridesmaids in Europe and North America are often asked to assist the bride with planning the wedding and a wedding reception. A bridesmaid is also typically asked to play a role in planning wedding-related events, such as a bridal shower or bachelorette party, if there are any. However, according to etiquette expert Judith Martin, the required duties of a bridesmaid are very limited: "Contrary to rumor, bridesmaids are not obliged to entertain in honor of the bride, nor to wear dresses they cannot afford."<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-609-60431-7_3-0" class="reference">[4]</sup> A junior bridesmaid has no responsibilities beyond attending the wedding.</p> <p>Since modern bridesmaids, unlike their historical counterparts, can no longer rely on having their clothes and travel expenses paid for by the bride's family, and are sometimes even assessed fees to pay for parties that the bride wants to have before the wedding, it has become customary for the bride to present the bridesmaids with gifts as a sign of gratitude for the support and financial commitment that comes with their roles.</p> <p><a name=".22Bridesmaid.22_as_an_idiomatic_term"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">"Bridesmaid" as an idiomatic term</span></h3> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>The term "bridesmaid" itself has also come to refer to one who comes close to attaining what is desired, only to fall just short, alluding to the fact that though a bridesmaid plays a large role in a wedding, she is not the one for whom the ceremony is given nor is she the center of attention. Commonly recited expressions about this member of the wedding party are "always a bridesmaid, but never a bride" and "thrice a bridesmaid, never a bride"-- an old charm that can be broken by being a bridesmaid seven times.</p> <p>The term is used especially commonly to refer to a sports team or athlete that routinely comes close to winning an award or championship, only to come up just short. Jason Kidd of the New Jersey Nets had stated, for instance, that he was tired of being the "bridesmaid" after two consecutive losses in the NBA finals (to the Los Angeles Lakers in 2002 and to the San Antonio Spurs in 2003). Other notable bridesmaid teams during the 1990's were the Buffalo Bills, Utah Jazz, the <span class="mw-redirect">England Cricket Team</span> (for reaching the finals of the Cricket World Cup thrice and not winning it even once) and the New York Knicks.</p> <p>This idiomatic usage of the word bridesmaid most probably began in 1917 when Fred W. Leigh and Charles Collins composed "Always a Bridesmaid":</p> <p><i>'Why am I always a bridesmaid,</i><br /><i>Never the blushing bride?</i><br /><i>Ding! Dong! Wedding bells</i><br /><i>Always ring for other gals.</i><br /><i>But one fine day –</i><br /><i>Please let it be soon –</i><br /><i>I shall wake up in the morning</i><br /><i>On my own honeymoon.'</i><br /></p> <p>In 1925 the Listerine Company used it in their ad campaign, claiming that at the root of the 'always a bridemaid' syndrome was halitosis, or bad breath.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference">[6]</sup></p> <p><a name="Groomsmen" id="Groomsmen"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Groomsmen</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>In a North American/<span class="mw-redirect">Australian</span> or British wedding a <b>groomsman</b> or <b>usher</b> is one of the male attendants to the <span class="mw-redirect">bridegroom</span> in a wedding ceremony. Usually the groom selects his closest friends and/or relatives to serve as a groomsmen, and it is considered an honor to be selected. From his groomsmen, the groom chooses one to serve as <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span>. In a typical white wedding, the duties of a groomsman typically include some or all of the following:</p> <ul><li>helping the best man plan the bachelor party(U.S.)/Stag Night(U.K)/<span class="mw-redirect">Buck's Night</span>(Aus.) for the groom</li><li>ushering guests to their seats before the ceremony</li><li>escorting the <span class="mw-redirect">bridesmaids</span> down the aisle during the ceremony and reception</li><li>giving speeches and toasts (however, this duty is usually performed by the best man)</li><li>doing whatever is necessary to help make the groom's wedding experience a smooth & enjoyable one</li><li>and sometimes dancing with bridesmaids and other single female guests at the reception</li></ul> <p>The groom may also designate other male friends and relatives to act as <b>ushers</b>, whose main task is ushering guests to their seats before the ceremony.</p> <p>In a military officers wedding, the role of groomsman is replaced by Swordsmen of the Sword Honor Guard. They are usually picked as close personal friends of the groom who have served with him. Their role includes forming the traditional <span class="mw-redirect">saber arch</span> for the married couple and guests to walk through.</p> <p><a name="Gifts" id="Gifts"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Gifts</span></h3> <p>To show appreciation and gratitude, the <span class="mw-redirect">bridegroom</span> will traditionally purchase gifts for his <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span> and groomsmen. These gifts are generally known as <b>groomsmen gifts</b>. Groomsmen gifts serve as both a thank you to all the groomsmen or ushers who take the time (and spend the money) to be a part of your wedding celebration. Groomsmen gifts are also a way to commemorate the special day for years to come.</p> <p>Traditionally, the bridegroom will give a gift to both his father, the bride's father and the <span class="mw-redirect">ringbearer</span>.</p> <p><a name="Flower_Girls" id="Flower_Girls"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Flower Girls</span></h2> <p>A <b>flower girl</b> is a participant in a wedding procession. Like ring bearers and page boys, flower girls are usually members of the bride's or groom's extended family, but may also be friends.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-06-074504-5_6-0" class="reference">[7]</sup></p> <p>Typically, the flower girl walks in front of the bride during an entrance processional. She may spread flower petals on the floor before the <span class="mw-redirect">bride</span> or carry a bouquet of flowers or thornless roses. Once the processional is over, a young flower girl will sit down with her parents. If the ceremony will not be particularly long, an older child may prefer to quietly stand at the altar with the other honor attendants.</p> <p>Because very young children are overwhelmed by the duties, and older girls may feel insulted by a "baby" role, the recommended age is between four and eight years of age,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference">[8]</sup> or even older, if not offensive to the girl's feelings.</p> <p>There may be more than one flower girl, particularly if the bride has several young relatives to honour. This practice is more common at British royal weddings, at elaborate weddings modeled after royal weddings, or at Victorian-themed weddings.</p> <p>Historically, the clothing was provided by the families of the bride and groom, but most modern couples expect the parents of the flower girl pay for her dress.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-06-074504-5_6-1" class="reference">[7]</sup></p> <p>Her male equivalent is the <span class="mw-redirect">ringbearer</span> or <span class="mw-redirect">page boy</span>. Often the ringbearer and the flower girl are made to look like a couple, and they may be dressed in miniature versions of the bride's and groom's clothes.</p> <p><a name="Page_Boys" id="Page_Boys"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Page Boys</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e3/Question_book-3.svg/50px-Question_book-3.svg.png" border="0" height="39" width="50" /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><b>This section does not cite any references or sources.</b> <small>(<i>December 2007</i>)</small><br /><small class="plainlinks">Please <span class="external text">improve this section</span> by adding citations to reliable sources. <span class="mw-redirect">Unverifiable</span> material may be challenged and removed.</small></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>A <b>page boy</b> is a young male attendant at a wedding or cotillion.</p> <p>This type of wedding attendant is less common than it used to be, but is still a way of including young relatives or the children of relatives and friends in a wedding. A page is often seen at British royal weddings. There may be many pages for effect at cotillions.</p> <p>In a formal wedding or a white wedding, the page may be involved with the following:</p> <ul><li>A <span class="mw-redirect">ringbearer</span> is a special page, who carries the wedding rings for the bridal party. This is a modern term, and it is perfectly correct to refer to the <span class="mw-redirect">Ringbearer</span></li><li>Traditionally, page boys may carry the bride's train, especially if she is wearing a dress with a long train.</li></ul> <p>Ringbearers and page boys are usually nephews or young brothers and are generally no younger than about 5 nor older than 9 or 10.</p> <p><a name="Ringbearer" id="Ringbearer"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Ringbearer</span></h3> <p>In a formal wedding, a <b>ring bearer</b> or <b>pageboy</b> is a special page, who performs one of two functions.</p> <ul><li>A ring bearer carries the wedding rings for the bridal party. This is almost always symbolic, with the ring bearer carrying a large white satin pillow on which imitation rings are sewn, the real wedding bands being in the safekeeping of the <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span>. If the real rings are used, they are tacked on with thread.</li></ul> <ul><li>A <b>pageboy</b> traditionally carries the bride's train if she is wearing a dress with a long train.</li></ul> <p>The ringbearer as a separate role is a relatively modern innovation; in a white wedding ceremony best man carried the rings.</p> <p>Ring bearers and pageboys are usually nephews or young brothers (although they can also be nieces or sisters) and are generally no younger than about 5 nor older than 9 or 10.</p> <p><a name="Officiant.2FCelebrant" id="Officiant.2FCelebrant"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Officiant/Celebrant</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><b><br /></b></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <dl><dd><br /></dd></dl> <p>In the United States, Canada and many other countries around the world, a <b>celebrant</b> is a person who performs religious or secular celebrancy services for weddings, funerals, child namings, coming of age ceremonies, and other rituals.</p> <p>Some Celebrants are ordained clergy, while others are Officiants empowered by the Humanist Association of Canada (HAC), the American Humanist Association (AHA), or the Society for Humanistic Judaism. (SHJ). In Australia, where Celebrants are commonly hired, they may be certified by any one of a number of Celebrancy training programs, while in the UK, most belong to one of a number of Humanist organizations, including the British Humanist Association and the Humanist Society of Scotland.</p> <p>Celebrants may perform alternative and nontraditional ceremonies in places, and under circumstances where mainstream religious clergy will not. Some Celebrants perform <span class="mw-redirect">same-sex weddings</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">commitment ceremonies</span>. Celebrants, also called Officiants, often perform ceremonies in parks, on beaches, on mountains, on boats, on hiking trails, in hotels, in banquet halls, in private homes, and many other places.</p> <p>Laws in each state of the United States vary about who has the right to perform wedding ceremonies, but Celebrants or Officiants are usually categorized as "clergy" and have the same rights and responsibilities as ordained clergy. In Canada and in the US State of Massachusetts, the only places in North America where <span class="mw-redirect">same-sex marriages</span> are legalized, Celebrants and Officiants perform many LGBT weddings.</p> <p>In Scotland, since a June 2005 ruling by the Registrar General, humanist weddings are now legal, providing that they are conducted by an Authorized Celebrant of the Humanist Society of Scotland making Scotland one of only three countries in the world where this is the case. (The other two are the USA and Norway.)</p> <p>Celebrants differ from <span class="mw-redirect">Chaplains</span> in that Celebrants serve the unaffiliated public at large, while Chaplains are usually employed by an institution such as a hospital or other health care facility, the military, etc.</p> <p>In Australia, Celebrants have a slightly different role, as regulated by local and national laws. See <i>Celebrant (Australia)</i> for more information.</p> <p>In the United States, Celebrants are professional ceremony officiants who believe in the power and effectiveness of ceremony and ritual to serve basic needs of society and the individual. They collaborate with their clients to create and perform personalized ceremonies that reflect the client’s beliefs, philosophy of life, and personality; not the Celebrant’s. See <i><span class="mw-redirect">Celebrant (United States)</span></i> for more information.</p> <p><a name="Gallery" id="Gallery"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2> <p>Modern participants in weddings.</p> <table class="gallery" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 14px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/The_bride_-_New_Orleans.jpg/120px-The_bride_-_New_Orleans.jpg" border="0" height="117" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>American</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 37px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Kalmyk_Brides_and_Grooms.jpg/120px-Kalmyk_Brides_and_Grooms.jpg" border="0" height="71" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Two Astrakhan Kalmyk brides.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Shinto_married_couple.jpg/80px-Shinto_married_couple.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="80" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Bride at a Shinto wedding</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Muslim_wedding_in_India.jpg/120px-Muslim_wedding_in_India.jpg" border="0" height="80" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Indian Muslims bride</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d6/19%2Bhandfasting%2Bby%2Bgordon.jpg/90px-19%2Bhandfasting%2Bby%2Bgordon.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="90" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p><span class="mw-redirect">Neopagan</span> bride and groom</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Groom_waiting_for_bride.jpg/120px-Groom_waiting_for_bride.jpg" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A groom waits for his bride.</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>Brides in history</p> <table class="gallery" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/1929wedding.jpg/100px-1929wedding.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="100" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>The woman to the far right is wearing a typical wedding dress from 1929. Up until the late 1930's wedding dresses reflected the styles of the day. From that time onward, wedding dresses have traditionally been based on Victorian styles.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/89/Wedding-1942.png/76px-Wedding-1942.png" border="0" height="120" width="76" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Bride in 1942</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Brauysegen_im_Bett.gif/100px-Brauysegen_im_Bett.gif" border="0" height="120" width="100" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>German woodcut of a <span class="mw-redirect">medieval</span> wedding ceremony (a bishop is standing over bed)</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Lodewijk_XIV-Marriage.jpg/120px-Lodewijk_XIV-Marriage.jpg" border="0" height="91" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>French royalty</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/Wed-dress-001.jpg/80px-Wed-dress-001.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="80" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Bride in the late 19th century</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/aa/Queen_Victoria_Albert_1854.JPG/92px-Queen_Victoria_Albert_1854.JPG" border="0" height="119" width="92" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p><span class="mw-redirect">Queen Victoria</span> and Prince Albert possibly recreating a wedding pose from their 1840 wedding for the newly developed art form of photography.1854</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a1/Scandinavia_EthnicCostumes.jpg/75px-Scandinavia_EthnicCostumes.jpg" border="0" height="119" width="75" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Scandinavian bride and maid (bottom right)</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 39px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/V08p346a01_Marriage.jpg/120px-V08p346a01_Marriage.jpg" border="0" height="67" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Jewish bride approaches a chuppah</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Bride1929.jpg/89px-Bride1929.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="89" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>An elaborate dress from 1929</p> </div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-20514895599123062632008-03-28T13:38:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:39:05.956-07:00Gallery<h2><span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2> <table class="gallery" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 24px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pernikahan.jpg/120px-Pernikahan.jpg" border="0" height="98" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Sundanese wedding in Indonesia.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Egypt-Nubian_wedding.jpg/120px-Egypt-Nubian_wedding.jpg" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Nubian wedding, near Aswan, Egypt.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Wedding_at_the_Victory_Monument_in_Minsk_2007-03-03.jpg/90px-Wedding_at_the_Victory_Monument_in_Minsk_2007-03-03.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="90" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Wedding ceremony at the Victory Monument in Minsk.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Maria_Palowicz_i_Karol_Semik_-_1936.jpg/120px-Maria_Palowicz_i_Karol_Semik_-_1936.jpg" border="0" height="85" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Wedding in Poland, 1936.</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cb/Bengali_wedding_edit1.jpg/120px-Bengali_wedding_edit1.jpg" border="0" height="80" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Bride and groom wearing traditional Bengali wedding costumes, from Bangladesh.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/East_Timorese_hakka_wedding.jpg/120px-East_Timorese_hakka_wedding.jpg" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Ethnic Hakka people in a wedding in East Timor, 2006.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Japanese_Wedding_Day.jpg/120px-Japanese_Wedding_Day.jpg" border="0" height="80" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Japanese bride and groom, wearing white and black kimonos respectively. The Japanese bride-to-be is painted pure white from head to toe, visibly declaring her maiden status to the gods; a white hood is attached to her kimono, which the bride wears like a veil to hide her 'horns of jealousy' from the groom's mother, who will now become the head of the family.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/Whitweddingcake.jpg/89px-Whitweddingcake.jpg" border="0" height="119" width="89" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A wedding cake.</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/30/CIMG6034.JPG/120px-CIMG6034.JPG" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Two decorated mustangs.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/08/Gaywedding4.jpg/100px-Gaywedding4.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="100" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Two grooms at their same-sex wedding in Wellington, New Zealand.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8b/Bride-boquet-toss.jpg/80px-Bride-boquet-toss.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="80" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A new bride tossing her flower bouquet over her shoulder.</p> </div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-74735105165862448902008-03-28T13:36:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:38:27.627-07:00Religious aspects of marriage<h2 style="color: rgb(204, 51, 204);"><span class="mw-headline">Religious aspects of marriage</span></h2> <p>In virtually all religions, marriage is a long-term union between two people and is established with ceremonies and rituals. The two people are most commonly a man and a woman, though many societies have permitted <span class="mw-redirect">polygamous</span> marriages, and same-sex marriage is now acknowledged in some places.</p> <p>Many religions have extensive teachings regarding marriage. Most Christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage; the wedding ceremony typically includes some sort of pledge by the community to support the couple's relationship. In the Roman Catholic Church "Holy Matrimony" is considered to be one of the seven sacraments, in this case one that the spouses bestow upon each other in front of a priest and members of the community as witnesses. An argument for the institution of the sacrament of Matrimony by Christ Jesus himself, and its occasion, is advanced by Bernard Orchard in his article <i>The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph</i>. <span class="external autonumber">[2]</span> <span class="external autonumber">[3]</span> <span class="external autonumber">[4]</span> In the Eastern Orthodox church, it is one of the Mysteries, and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom. In marriage, Christians see a picture of the relationship between Jesus Christ and His Church. In Judaism, marriage is so important that remaining unmarried is deemed unnatural. Islam also recommends marriage highly; among other things, it helps in the pursuit of spiritual perfection. The Bahá'í Faith sees marriage as a foundation of the structure of society, and considers it both a physical and spiritual bond that endures into the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-oneworld_5-0" class="reference">[6]</sup> Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. By contrast, Buddhism does not encourage or discourage marriage, although it does teach how one might live a happily married life and emphasizes that married vows are not to be taken slightly (see separate article for details).</p> <p>Different religions have different beliefs as regards the breakup of marriage. For example, the Roman Catholic Church believes it is morally wrong to divorce, and divorcées cannot remarry in a church marriage, though they can do in the eyes of the law. In the area of nullity, religions and the state often apply different rules, meaning that a couple, for example, could have their marriage annulled by the Catholic Church but still be married in the eyes of the law because the state disagrees with the church over whether an annulment can be granted in a given case. This produces the phenomenon of Catholics getting church annulments simultaneously with civil divorces, so that they may remarry both legally and sacramentally. The Catholic Church will not, in fact, grant an annulment petition unless the marriage has also been dissolved or annulled under civil law.</p> <p><a name="Detailed_viewpoints_of_various_religions" id="Detailed_viewpoints_of_various_religions"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span style="color: rgb(204, 102, 204);" class="mw-headline">Detailed viewpoints of various religions</span></h3> <ul><li>Ayyavazhi marriage</li><li>Bahá'í marriage</li><li>Buddhist view of marriage</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Christian view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Latter-day Saint view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Hindu view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Islamic view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Jewish view of marriage</span></li><li>handfasting</li></ul> <p><a name="Religious_customs" id="Religious_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span style="color: rgb(204, 102, 204);" class="mw-headline">Religious customs</span></h3> <p><a name="Hindu_customs" id="Hindu_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Hindu customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Hindu wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p><b>North and South Indian wedding</b> ceremonies are conducted at least partially in Sanskrit, the language in which most holy Hindu ceremonies are conducted. The local language of the people involved is also used since most Hindus cannot understand Sanskrit. They may have rituals that differ fom the modern western <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong> ceremony and also among the different regions, families, and castes such as <span class="mw-redirect">Rajput Wedding</span>, Aggarwal Weddings, Iyer Weddings and Tamil Weddings. The ceremonies are colourful and extend for several days.</p> <p><a name="Jewish_customs" id="Jewish_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Jewish customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Jewish view of marriage</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The traditions used in a Jewish wedding vary based on the denomination of Judaism of the people being married. Some of the most common are listed below.</p> <p>The bride (<i>kallah</i>) and groom (<i>chatan</i>) sign a Ketubah (marriage contract). Originally, the Ketubah detailed the husband's obligations to his wife, and provided for monetary payment to her in case of divorce. Nowadayst the Ketubah can be a decorative keepsake that sets out expectations for both the bride and groom. In Conservative homes it is typically framed and displayed, while in Orthodox homes it is kept hidden away.</p> <p>The Jewish ceremony generally starts with the bride and groom being escorted to the <span class="mw-redirect">huppah</span> (Jewish wedding canopy) by both sets of parents. The ceremony takes place under the huppah, and is presided over by a Rabbi. After the vows, seven marriage blessings are read and the groom then smashes a glass with his foot. The bride and groom spend time together alone before the reception, which is traditionally a joyous celebration with much music and dancing.</p> <p>There are several activities that may take place during the reception:</p> <ul><li>The wedding breakfast.</li><li>A dance in which the bride and groom hold opposite corners of a handkerchief while they are lifted up on chairs by the guests and whirled around.</li><li>The <b>Krenzl</b>, in which the bride's mother is crowned with a wreath of flowers as her daughters dance around her (traditionally at the wedding of the mother's last unwed daughter).</li><li>The <b>Mizinke</b>, a dance for the parents of the bride or groom when their last child is wed.</li><li>The <b>gladdening of the bride</b>, in which guests dance around the bride, and can include the use of "shtick" -- silly items such as signs, banners, costumes, confetti, and jump ropes made of table napkins.</li><li>The singing of <b>Aishet Chayil</b> to the bride by the groom accompanied by his friends.</li></ul> <p><a name="Quaker_customs" id="Quaker_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Quaker customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Quaker wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A Quaker wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other Meeting for Worship, and therefore often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends.</p> <p><a name="LDS_customs" id="LDS_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">LDS customs</span></h4> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-merge"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Celestial marriage</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormons), the act of marriage is regarded as an eternal affair. As such, there are two kinds of marriages recognized by the Church, civil marriage and celestial marriage. Civil marriages are those legally contracted under local law and are dissolved upon the death of the participants, while celestial marriages, also known as sealings, bind the participants as husband and wife for all eternity if both are righteous.</p> <p>Celestial marriages can only be performed by Priesthood authority within a Sealing Room in a dedicated temple. Only members of the LDS church who have a temple recommend may attend an LDS wedding. The wedding is often referred to as a sealing, in which husband and wife are sealed beyond death into the next life. Space is limited in sealing rooms so only family and close friends attend.</p> <p>The sealing can be performed at the same approximate time as the civil marriage or for a couple civilly married for at least one year. In the latter case, if the couple already has children, they may also accompany the ceremony to be sealed to their parents. Children who are born to parents who have already been sealed need no such ceremony, as they have been "born in the covenant."</p> <p>Many LDS couples will then hold wedding receptions or open houses after the wedding ceremony in another venue that is open to all family and friends. Some couples choose to recreate a more traditional wedding ceremony, or will simply perform certain traditional acts, such as the throwing of the bouquet, first dance, etc.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-74457896011505098782008-03-28T13:33:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:35:50.685-07:00international wedding customs<h2><span class="mw-headline">international wedding customs</span></h2> <p><a name="Common_elements_in_wedding_customs_across_cultures" id="Common_elements_in_wedding_customs_across_cultures"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Common elements in wedding customs across cultures</span></h3> <p>A number of cultures utilise the western custom of a bride wearing a white dress. This tradition came to symbolize purity in the Victorian era (despite popular misconception, the white dress did not indicate virginity, which was symbolized by the face veil). Within the ‘white wedding’ tradition, a white dress and veil would not have been considered appropriate for a second or third wedding of a widow or a divorcee.</p> <p>The custom of exchanging rings may be the oldest and most universal symbol of marriage, but the origins are unclear. The ring’s circular shape represents perfection and never-ending love. The ring gains even greater symbolism with the inclusion of a precious stone.</p> <p>The rings are exchanged during the wedding ceremony and symbolize the love, faithfulness and commitment of the marriage union.</p> <p>The wedding is often followed by a reception during which the rituals include toasting the bride and groom, the newlyweds' first dance as husband and wife, cake cutting, etc.</p> <p><a name="Wedding_clothing" id="Wedding_clothing"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding clothing</span></h4> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qipao" class="mw-redirect" title="Qipao">Qipao</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanfu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanfu">Hanfu</a>, Chinese traditional formal wear</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">Batik</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebaya" title="Kebaya">Kebaya</a>, a garment worn by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese" title="Javanese">Javanese</a> people of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barong_Tagalog" title="Barong Tagalog">Barong Tagalog</a>, an embroidered, formal men's garment of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimono" title="Kimono">Kimono</a>, the traditional garments of Japan</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sari" title="Sari">Sari</a>, Indian popular and traditional dress in India</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao_dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ao dai">Ao dai</a>, traditional garments of Vietnam</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morning_dress" title="Morning dress">Morning dress</a>, men's formal dress</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilt" title="Kilt">Kilt</a>, male garment particular to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_culture" title="Scottish culture">Scottish culture</a><sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding#cite_note-1" title="">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding#cite_note-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kittel" title="Kittel">Kittel</a>, a white robe worn by the groom at an Orthodox Jewish wedding. The kittel is worn only under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chupah" class="mw-redirect" title="Chupah">Chupah</a>, and is removed before the reception.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topor_%28headgear%29" title="Topor (headgear)">Topor</a>, a type of conical headgear</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuxedo" title="Tuxedo">Tuxedo</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_tie" title="Black tie">Black tie</a>, indicating dinner jacket in the UK</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_tie" title="White tie">White tie</a>, indicating evening dress in the UK</li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherwani" title="Sherwani">Sherwani</a>, a long coat-like garment worn in South Asia</li><li>Wedding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown" title="Crown">crown</a>, worn by Scandinavian brides</li><li>Wedding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veil" title="Veil">veil</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_dress" title="Wedding dress">Wedding dress</a></li></ul> <p><a name="Music" id="Music"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h4> <p><a name="Western_weddings" id="Western_weddings"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Western weddings</span></h5> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_music" title="Wedding music">Music</a> often played at western weddings includes a processional song for walking down the aisle (ex: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_March" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedding March">Wedding March</a>) and reception dance music.</p> <p>Music played at Western weddings includes:</p> <ul><li>The "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridal_Chorus" title="Bridal Chorus">Bridal Chorus</a>" from <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohengrin_%28opera%29" title="Lohengrin (opera)">Lohengrin</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>, often used as the processional and commonly known as "Here Comes the Bride" - Note: Richard Wagner is said to have been <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitic">Anti-Semitic</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup>, and as a result, the Bridal Chorus is often not used at Jewish weddings.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Pachelbel" title="Johann Pachelbel">Johann Pachelbel</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachelbel%27s_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pachelbel's canon">Canon in D</a> is often used as an alternative processional.</li><li>The "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_March_%28Mendelssohn%29" title="Wedding March (Mendelssohn)">Wedding March</a>" from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_music" title="Incidental music">incidental music</a> for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_%28theatre%29" title="Play (theatre)">play</a>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream" title="A Midsummer Night's Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i>, often used as a recessional.</li><li>The "Toccata" from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Marie_Widor" title="Charles-Marie Widor">Charles-Marie Widor</a>'s <i>Symphony for Organ No. 5</i>, also used as a recessional.</li><li>Segments of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode_To_Joy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ode To Joy">Ode To Joy</a>, the fourth movement of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Symphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninth Symphony">Ninth Symphony</a>, sometimes make appearances at weddings; its message of unity is suitable for the occasion.</li><li>At wedding receptions, <i>Der Ententanz</i>, a 1950s Swiss <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oom-pah" title="Oom-pah">Oom-pah</a> song known more commonly in America as <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_Dance" title="Chicken Dance">The Chicken Dance</a></i>, has become a popular part of the reception dance music.</li></ul> <div class="medialist listenlist"> <ul><li style="list-style-type: none; list-style-image: none; list-style-position: outside; display: inline;"> <table style="background-color: transparent;"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wagner_Bridal_Chorus.ogg" title="Image:Wagner Bridal Chorus.ogg">Bridal march</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div id="ogg_player_1" style="width: 180px;"> <div><button onclick="'wgOggPlayer.init(false," style="width: 180px; text-align: center;" title="Play sound"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/extensions/OggHandler/play.png" alt="Play sound" height="22" width="22" /></button></div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 0pt; font-size: 8pt; text-align: left; line-height: 1.25em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridal_Chorus" title="Bridal Chorus">Bridal Chorus</a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>'s opera <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohengrin_%28opera%29" title="Lohengrin (opera)">Lohengrin</a></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </li><li><i>Problems playing the files? See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">media help</a>.</i></li></ul> </div> <p><a name="Chinese_weddings" id="Chinese_weddings"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Chinese weddings</span></h5> <p>Chinese music plays an important role in creating a happy, friendly environment during the wedding ceremony. A band of musicians with gongs and flute-like instruments accompanies the bride parade to groom's home. Similar music is also played at the wedding banquet.</p> <p><a name="Jewish_weddings" id="Jewish_weddings"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Jewish weddings</span></h5> <p>At traditional Jewish weddings, a solemn, wordless tune is sung as the groom and then bride walk down the aisles. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a> tradition is to sing a special tune composed by their founding Rebbe, Rabbi <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" title="Shneur Zalman of Liadi">Shneur Zalman of Liadi</a>, the tune is comprised of four stanzas corresponding to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Four worlds">four worlds</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalistic">kabbalistic</a> cosmology, and is only sung at solemn occasions<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup>. During the recessional, lively Hebrew songs are sung by the guests, who escort the couple from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuppah" title="Chuppah">chuppah</a>.</p> <p><a name="Asian_customs" id="Asian_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Asian customs</span></h3> <p>Customs vary throughout the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asian continent</a>.</p> <p><a name="Arabic_customs" id="Arabic_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Arabic customs</span></h4> <p>Arabic weddings vary depending on the country and religion of the bride and groom. Although Christian weddings in the Arab World bear clear similarities to Western weddings, the Muslim weddings in the Arab countries are influenced by Muslim traditions. Muslim weddings (pre-arranged or not) start with a Shaikh and Al-Kitab (book) for the bride and groom. The groom may or may not see his bride until the wedding day. Men and women in wedding ceremonies and receptions are segregated affairs, with areas for both men and women. An old tradition, now rarely observed, involves the women at the ceremony symbolically mourning the loss of the bride by doing the "wedding wail". The bride's dress is an ornate Caftan, and the bride's hands and feet are decorated in intricate lace-like patterns painted using a henna dye. Customarily women guests do not show their hair, shoulders or legs; and all guests at a Mosque remove their shoes on entering. Guests may give gifts to the bride and groom. However, these are all the old traditions; Arabs, nowadays, have Western-like weddings, but still preserve most Arab customs and traditions.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Bengali_customs" id="Bengali_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bengali customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_wedding" title="Bengali wedding">Bengali wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p><b>Bengali wedding</b> refers to both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_wedding" title="Hindu wedding">Hindu wedding</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>. Although Muslim and Hindu marriages have their distinctive religious rituals, there are many common cultural rituals in marriages across religion among <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_people" title="Bengali people">Bengali people</a>.</p> <p><a name="Chinese_customs" id="Chinese_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Chinese customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_marriage" title="Chinese marriage">Chinese marriage</a></i></div> </dd><dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Chinese tea culture</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_packet" class="mw-redirect" title="Red packet">Red packet</a></i></span></dd></dl> <p><b>Chinese marriage</b> is a ceremonial ritual within <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> societies that involve a marriage established by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriage" title="Arranged marriage">pre-arrangement between families</a>. Within <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a>, romantic love was allowed, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamy</a> was the norm for most ordinary citizens.</p> <p><a name="Cantonese_customs" id="Cantonese_customs"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Cantonese customs</span></h5> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese_wedding" title="Cantonese wedding">Cantonese wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Most <b>Cantonese wedding</b> rituals follow the main <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_wedding" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese wedding">Chinese wedding</a> traditions. Although some rituals are unique to the Cantonese people.</p> <p><a name="Filipino_Customs" id="Filipino_Customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Filipino Customs</span></h4> <p>Customs and superstitions regarding marriage in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> vary. Some examples are:</p> <ul><li>The groom usually wears the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barong_Tagalog" title="Barong Tagalog">Barong Tagalog</a> during the wedding, along with the male attendants, though nowadays the wealthy opt to don Western attire such as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuxedo" title="Tuxedo">tuxedo</a>.</li><li><i>Sukob</i>: weddings held within the same year by two siblings, usually sisters, are frowned upon as it is regarded as bad luck.</li><li>Some hold it that the wedding rings dropping to the ground is a portent of bad luck (this is usually said to the ringbearer to ensure that the child is careful in handling the rings).</li><li>Money, in the form of paper bills, is sometimes taped or pinned to the groom and bride during the reception.</li></ul> <p><a name="Indian_customs" id="Indian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Indian customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_wedding" title="Indian wedding">Indian wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p><b>Indian weddings</b> are very bright events, filled with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebration" title="Celebration">celebration</a>, that continue for several days. They are not small affairs, often with 400-1000 people attending (many of whom are unknown to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bride" class="mw-redirect" title="Bride">bride</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groom" title="Groom">groom</a>). Although most marriages are arranged, some couples in urban areas are having love marriages.</p> <p><a name="Rajput_customs" id="Rajput_customs"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Rajput customs</span></h5> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajput_wedding" title="Rajput wedding">Rajput wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a> - one of the major <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a> groups from India - traditionally had their own typical rituals of marriage as it is one of the most important functions of life. It is relation which is created for seven generations between the two families of the Bride & the Groom. It comprises a ceremony each for the <i>TILAK</i> (engagement), the <i>BAN</i> (starting of the wedding ceremony, <i>MEL</i> the community feast, the <i>Nikasi</i> is the departure of the Bridegroom party for the wedding, <i>Sehla</i> & <i>Dhukav</i> reception of wedding party at the Brides place be her parents. Solemnisation of wedding <i>Sat Fere</i>.</p> <p><a name="Japanese_customs" id="Japanese_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Japanese customs</span></h4> <p>Traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_people" title="Japanese people">Japanese</a> wedding customs (shinzen shiki) have given way to the "Western Style Wedding" in recent years. The Japanese have long tried to emulate and improve upon Western tradition. To that end, a Japanese western style wedding is held in a chapel, either in a simple or elaborate ceremony, often at a chapel within a hotel. Typically, much like in Western culture, the bride, or shinpu, and groom, or shinro, get their own changing rooms within the chapel, as does the bride's father and any other important guest who requires such a room. There is also a room to hold the reception afterwards.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MeijiShrineWedding.jpg" class="image" title="A traditional Japanese wedding ceremony"><img alt="A traditional Japanese wedding ceremony" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/MeijiShrineWedding.jpg/180px-MeijiShrineWedding.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="121" width="180" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MeijiShrineWedding.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></a></div> A traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</a> wedding ceremony</div> </div> </div> <p>Before the ceremony, there is a rehearsal. Often during this rehearsal, the bride's mother lowers the veil for her daughter, signifying the last act that a mother can do for her daughter, before giving her away. The father of the bride, much like in Western culture, walks the bride down the aisle to her awaiting groom.</p> <p>After the rehearsal comes the procession. The wedding celebrant will often wear a wedding cross, or cana, a cross with two interlocking wedding rings attached, which symbolize a couple's commitment to sharing a life together in the bonds of holy matrimony. The wedding celebrant gives a brief welcome and an introductory speech before announcing the bride's entrance. The procession ends with the groom bowing to the bride's father. The father bows in return.</p> <p>The service, or kekkon shiki, then starts. The service is given either in Japanese or English, or, in some cases, a mix of both. It follows a traditional Protestant ceremony, relaxed and not overtly religious. The opening hymn is usually the Japanese version of What a Friend We Have in Jesus. Part of 1 Corinthians 13 is read from the Bible. After the reading, there is a prayer and a short message, explaining the sanctity of the wedding vows, or seiyaku. The bride and groom share their vows and exchange rings. The chapel register is signed and the new couple is announced. This is often followed by the traditional wedding kiss. The service concludes with another hymn and a benediction.</p> <p><a name="Malay_customs" id="Malay_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Malay customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_wedding" title="Malay wedding">Malay wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A <b>Malay wedding</b> ceremony spreads over two days, beginning with the <i>akad nikah</i> ceremony. The groom signs the marriage contract and agrees to provide the bride with a <i>mas kahwin</i>(dowry). After that, their hands are dyed with henna during the berinai besar ceremony. The bride's hair is also trimmed or her eyebrows shaped by a beautician known as the <i>mak andam</i>.</p> <p><a name="Pakistani_customs" id="Pakistani_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Pakistani customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_wedding" title="Pakistani wedding">Pakistani wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistani</a> wedding typically consist of four ceremonies on four separate days.</p> <p><a name="Russian_customs" id="Russian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Russian customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_wedding" title="Russian wedding">Russian wedding</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A traditional Russian <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong> lasts for at least two days and some weddings last as long as a week. Throughout the celebration there is dancing, singing, long toasts, and a lot of food and drinks. The best man and maid of honor are called witnesses, “svideteli” in Russian. The ceremony and the ring exchange takes place on the first day of the wedding and on this special day many events take place. Throughout the years, Russian weddings have adopted many western cultures, including bridesmaids and flower girls.</p> <p><a name="European_customs" id="European_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">European customs</span></h3> <p>Customs vary throughout the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European continent</a>.</p> <p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> custom of a bride wearing a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_wedding#History_and_traditions" title="White wedding">white wedding dress</a>, came to symbolize purity in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> (despite popular misconception and the hackneyed jokes of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_comedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Situation comedies">situation comedies</a> the white dress did not actually indicate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin">virginity</a>, which was symbolized by a face <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veil" title="Veil">veil</a>). Within the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_wedding" title="White wedding">white wedding</a>" tradition, a white dress and veil would not have been considered appropriate in the second or third wedding of a widow or divorcee. The specific conventions of Western weddings, largely from a Protestant and Catholic viewpoint, are discussed at "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_wedding" title="White wedding">White wedding</a>."</p> <p>A wedding is often followed or accompanied by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_reception" title="Wedding reception">wedding reception</a>, at which an elaborate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_cake" title="Wedding cake">wedding cake</a> is served. Western traditions include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast_%28honor%29" title="Toast (honor)">toasting</a> the couple, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newlywed" title="Newlywed">newlyweds</a> having the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_dance" title="First dance">first dance</a>, and cutting the cake. A bride may throw her <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouquet" title="Bouquet">bouquet</a> to the assembled group of all unmarried women in attendance, with folklore suggesting the person who catches it will be the next to wed. A fairly recent equivalent has the groom throwing the bride's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garter_%28stockings%29" title="Garter (stockings)">garter</a> to the assembled unmarried men; the man who catches it is supposedly the next to wed.</p> <p>A modern tradition is for brides to wear or carry "something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue" during the service. It is considered good luck to do so. Often the bride attempts to have one item that meets all of these qualifications, such as a borrowed blue handkerchief which is "new to her" but loaned by her grandmother (thus making it old).</p> <p><a name="French_customs" id="French_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">French customs</span></h4> <p>In smaller French towns, the groom may meet his fiancée at her home on the day of the wedding and escort her to the chapel where the ceremony is being held. As the couple proceeds to the chapel, children will stretch long white ribbons across the road which the bride will cut as she passes.</p> <p>At the chapel, the bride and groom are seated on two red velvet chairs underneath a silk canopy they called a <i>carre</i>. Laurel leaves may be scattered across their paths when they exit the chapel. Sometimes small coins are also tossed for the children to gather.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Weddinghattonchatel.jpg" class="image" title="A traditional French wedding celebration at Château de Hattonchâtel"><img alt="A traditional French wedding celebration at Château de Hattonchâtel" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ec/Weddinghattonchatel.jpg/180px-Weddinghattonchatel.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="135" width="180" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Weddinghattonchatel.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></a></div> A traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> wedding celebration at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Hattonch%C3%A2tel" title="Château de Hattonchâtel">Château de Hattonchâtel</a></div> </div> </div> <p>At the reception, the couple customarily uses a toasting cup, called a <i>Coupe de Marriage</i>. The origin of giving toast began in France, when they literally dropped a small piece of toast into the couple's wine (to ensure a healthy life). They lifted their glass to "a toast", as is common in Western culture today.</p> <p>Some couples choose to serve a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croquembouche" title="Croquembouche">croquembouche</a> instead of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_cake" title="Wedding cake">wedding cake</a>. The dessert is a pyramid of crème-filled pastry puffs, drizzled with a caramel glaze.</p> <p>At a more boisterous wedding, tradition involves continuing the celebration until very late at night. After the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_reception" title="Wedding reception">reception</a>, those invited to the wedding will gather outside the newlyweds' window and bang pots and pans. They are then invited into the house for some more drinks in the couple's honor, after which the couple is finally allowed to be alone for their first night together as husband and wife.</p> <p>Another practice that is becoming more common at wedding celebrations is "beheading" a bottle of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne_%28wine%29" title="Champagne (wine)">champagne</a> with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabre" title="Sabre">sabre</a> made for the occasion. It was started as a way for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussars" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussars">Hussars</a> (under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s command) to celebrate victories and exhibit their horseback skills: they would "behead" the top off a bottle of champagne while on horseback. Legend has it that the skilled horsemen would ride at a full gallop while brave women held up bottles of champagne. The sabre must strike the neck of the bottle at exactly the right angle (champagne bottles have over 100 pounds of pressure per square inch).</p> <p>This practice spread throughout France as a way to celebrate special occasions. Decorative replicas of these special sabres can be purchased from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisans" class="mw-redirect" title="Artisans">artisans</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon%2C_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyon, France">Lyon, France</a> (the French capital of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">cutlery</a>).</p> <p><a name="Italian_customs" id="Italian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Italian customs</span></h4> <p>At the start of a typical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> wedding reception, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridal_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridal party">bridal party</a> and the rest of the guests are separated for an hour and served cocktails. The food during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cocktail_hour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cocktail hour (page does not exist)">cocktail hour</a> is served in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffet" title="Buffet">buffet</a> setup. During the cocktail time, the bride and the groom usually take their time to shoot photographs in a proper setting.</p> <p>At the conclusion of cocktail hour, the guests will gather in the main dining room. The newlywed couple is introduced with much fanfare and they take their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_dance" title="First dance">first dance</a>, with the bridal party following soon after, who are then ultimately joined by the rest of the guests. Afterwards, everyone is seated, speeches are made by friends and family, and everyone champagne toasts the wedded couple.</p> <p>Food is plentiful during most weddings, and Italian custom is no exception. Between courses, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Ceremonies" title="Master of Ceremonies">MC</a> will encourage dancing.</p> <p>After the bulk of the courses have passed, it is time for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cake_cutting" class="mw-redirect" title="Cake cutting">cake cutting</a>, which ushers in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dessert" title="Dessert">dessert</a> course. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicilian</a> customs, the dessert course is often presented as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venetian_Table&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Venetian Table (page does not exist)">Venetian Table</a>, a dazzling array of pastries, fruits, coffees, cakes, (etc) are presented in great quantity with much celebration. This is often called Venetian Hour.</p> <p>After dessert, more dancing commences, gifts are given, and the guests eventually begin to leave. In Southern Italy, as the guests leave, they hand envelopes of money to the bride and groom, who return the gift with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_favor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedding favor">wedding favor</a>, a small token of appreciation.</p> <p><a name="Polish_customs" id="Polish_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Polish customs</span></h4> <p>Polish weddings are festive and traditional. The wedding celebrations may continue for two or three days. The engagement is also an important custom. In the past, the engagement ceremony was organized by the future groom as a formal family gathering, during which he asked his chosen lady to marry him. In the recent years this official custom has changed and today an engagement is much more personal and intimate. An elegant dinner party afterwards is still a nice way to inform the closest family members about the couples' decision to get married.</p> <p>In some regions of Poland the tradition to invite the wedding guests in person is still upheld. Many young couples still devote their time, and accompanied by the parents visit their family and friends to hand them the wedding invitations personally.</p> <p>According to the old tradition a groom arrives with his parents at the house of a bride just before the wedding ceremony. At that time both parents and parents-in-law give a young couple their blessing. The couple enters the church together and walks up to the altar followed by two witnesses and the parents. In Poland it is quite unusual for the bride to be walked down the aisle or to have bridesmaids and groomsmen in a wedding. The couple is assisted by two witnesses, a man (usually grooms' side) and a woman (usually brides' side) who are either family members or close friends.</p> <p>The Polish bride traditionally wears a white dress and a veil. The groom, on the other hand usually wears a fitted suit with a bow tie and a boutonnière that matches the brides' bouquet. During the ceremony wedding rings are exchanged and both the husband and wife wear them on their right hand. When they leave the church the guests toss rice or coins at the married couple for good and prosperous future together. Right after the ceremony the closest family and all the guest form a line in the front of the church to congratulate the happy newlyweds and wish them love and happiness. As soon as the married couple leave the church they get showered with rice for luck or guests drop coins at their feet for them to pick up.</p> <p>Once all the guests have showered the couple with kisses, hugs and flowers everyone heads to the reception. It is a very popular custom in Poland to prepare "passing gates" on the way to the reception for the newlyweds, who in order to pass have to give the "gate keepers" some vodka.</p> <p>The married couple is welcomed at the reception place by the parents with bread and salt. The bread symbolizes the prosperity, salt stands for hardship of life, the parents wish the young couple that they never go hungry and learn how to deal with every day hardships together. The wedding party lasts until the last guest leaves, usually until morning.</p> <p><a name="Romanian_customs" id="Romanian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Romanian customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%83utari" title="Lăutari">Lăutari</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Lăutari are musicians performing traditional songs. The music of the lăutari establishes the structure of the elaborate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romanian</a> peasant weddings. The lăutari also function as guides through the wedding rituals and moderate any conflicts that may arise during what can be a long, alcohol-fueled party. Over a period of nearly 48 hours, this can be very physically strenuous.</p> <p>Following custom almost certainly dating back at least to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, most lăutari spend the fees from these wedding ceremonies on extended <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banquets</a> for their friends and families over the days immediately following the wedding.</p> <p><a name="Scottish_customs" id="Scottish_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Scottish customs</span></h4> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> is a popular place for young English couples to get married, due to the fact that in Scotland, parents' permission is not required if both the bride and groom are old enough to legally be married (16). In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> it was the case that if either was 16 or 17 then the permission of parents had to be sought. Thus Scotland, and especially the blacksmith's at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretna_Green" title="Gretna Green">Gretna Green</a>, became a very popular place for couples to elope to, especially those under 18 and usually living in England. Gretna Green now hosts hundreds of weddings a year and is Scotland's third most popular tourist attraction.</p> <p>Customs:</p> <ul><li>The bride's family sends invitations on behalf of the couple to the wedding guests, addressed by hand. The couple may send the invitations themselves, especially if they are more middle-aged. The invites will specify if the invitation is for ceremony and/or reception and/or evening following the meal at the reception.</li><li>Guests send or deliver wedding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift" title="Gift">gifts</a> to the bride's family home before the wedding day. Alternatively, the couple may register at department store and have a list of gifts there. The shop then organizes delivery, usually to the bride's parents' house or to the reception venue.</li><li>A wedding ceremony takes place at a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church" title="Church">church</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_office" title="Register office">register office</a> or possibly another favorite location, such as a hilltop. In this regard Scotland differs significantly from England where only pre-approved public locations may be used for the wedding ceremony. Most ceremonies take place mid afternoon and last about half an hour during which the marriage schedule is signed by the couple and two witnesses, usually the best man and chief bridesmaid.</li><li>The newly wed couple usually leave the ceremony to the sound of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagpipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagpipe">bagpipes</a>.</li><li>There is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_reception" title="Wedding reception">wedding reception</a> following the ceremony, usually at a different venue.</li><li>The bridal party lines up in a receiving line and the wedding guests file past, introducing themselves.</li><li>Usually a drink is served while the guests and bridal party mingle. In some cases the drink may be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey" class="mw-redirect" title="Whiskey">whiskey</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> with a non alcoholic alternative.</li><li>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Best man">best man</a> and bride's father <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast_%28honor%29" title="Toast (honor)">toast</a> the bride and groom with personal thoughts, stories, and well-wishes, usually humorous. The groom then follows with a response on behalf of his bride. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne_%28wine%29" title="Champagne (wine)">Champagne</a> is usually provided for the toast.</li><li>There is nearly always dancing following the meal. Often in Scotland this takes the form of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceilidh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceilidh">ceilidh</a>, a night of informal traditional Scottish dancing in couples and groups to live traditional music. The first dance is led by the bride and groom, followed by the rest of the bridal party and finally the guests.</li><li>The cake-cutting ceremony takes place; the bride and groom jointly hold a cake cutter and cut the first pieces of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_cake" title="Wedding cake">wedding cake</a>.</li><li>Gifts are not opened at the reception; they are either opened ahead of time and sometimes displayed at the reception, or if guests could not deliver gifts ahead of time, they are placed on a table at the reception for the bride and groom to take home with them and open later.</li><li>A sprig of white <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calluna" title="Calluna">heather</a> is usually worn as a buttonhole for good luck.</li><li>It is the norm for the groom and much of the male <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridal_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridal party">bridal party</a> and guests to wear <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilt" title="Kilt">kilts</a>, although suits are also worn. Kilts and Highland dress are often hired for this purpose.</li></ul> <p><a name="Handfasting" id="Handfasting"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Handfasting</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handfasting" title="Handfasting">Handfasting</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handfasting" title="Handfasting">Handfasting</a> is an ancient Celtic wedding ritual in which the bride's and groom's hands are tied together — hence the phrase "tying the knot". "Handfasting" is favored by practitioners of Celtic-based religions and spiritual traditions, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Druidism">Druidism</a>.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since August 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="North_American_customs" id="North_American_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">North American customs</span></h3> <p><a name="United_States_customs" id="United_States_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">United States customs</span></h4> <p>A Christian or other mainstream wedding and reception in the United States follow a similar pattern to the Italian wedding. Customs and traditions vary but components include the following:</p> <ul><li>The bride wears “something old, something new, something borrowed, and something blue.” (See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonial_clothing_in_Western_cultures#Marriage" title="Ceremonial clothing in Western cultures">Ceremonial clothing in Western cultures</a>.)</li><li>The bride usually wears a white dress.</li><li>A color scheme is often used so that the invitation matches the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridesmaid" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridesmaid">bridesmaids</a>' dresses and the table settings.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> is sometimes thrown at the newlyweds as they leave the ceremony.<a href="http://ask.yahoo.com/20030626.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://ask.yahoo.com/20030626.html" rel="nofollow">[1]</a></li><li>The bride's family sends engraved <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_invitation" title="Wedding invitation">invitations</a> to the wedding guests, addressed by hand to show the importance and personal meaning of the occasion.</li><li>Guests send or deliver wedding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift" title="Gift">gifts</a> to the bride's family home before the wedding day.</li><li>A wedding ceremony takes place at a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church" title="Church">church</a> or other location, such as an outdoor venue.</li></ul> <p>At the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_reception" title="Wedding reception">wedding reception</a> following the ceremony, sometimes at the same location but sometimes at a different venue:</p> <ul><li>The bridal party lines up in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Receiving_line&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Receiving line (page does not exist)">receiving line</a> and the wedding guests file past, introducing themselves.</li><li>Usually <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snack" class="mw-redirect" title="Snack">snacks</a> or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meal" title="Meal">meal</a> are served while the guests and bridal party mingle.</li><li>Often the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Best man">best man</a> and/or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maid_of_honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Maid of honor">maid of honor</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast_%28honor%29" title="Toast (honor)">toast</a> the bride and groom with personal thoughts, stories, and well-wishes; sometimes other guests follow with their own toasts. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne_%28wine%29" title="Champagne (wine)">Champagne</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparkling_cider" class="mw-redirect" title="Sparkling cider">sparkling cider</a>, or nonalcoholic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonated" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonated">carbonated</a> drinks are usually provided for this purpose.</li><li>Clinking <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silverware" title="Silverware">silverware</a> against <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassware" title="Glassware">glassware</a> obliges the newlyweds to kiss.</li><li>If dancing is provided, the bride and groom first dance together. Often further protocol is followed, where they dance first with their respective mother and father, then possibly with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maid_of_honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Maid of honor">maid of honor</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Best man">best man</a>; then the bride and groom rejoin while the parents of the bride and groom join the dance and the best man and maid of honor dance together; then other attendants join in; then finally everyone is entitled to dance. Dancing continues throughout the reception. Music is sometimes provided by a live <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Musical band">band</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">musical ensemble</a>, sometimes by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockey</a>.</li><li>In some cultures, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_Dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Dollar Dance">money dance</a> takes place, in which it is expected and encouraged for guests to pin money onto the young bride and groom to help them get started in their new lives.</li><li>The cake-cutting ceremony takes place; the bride and groom jointly hold a cake cutter--often a special silver keepsake cutter purchased or given as a gift for the occasion--and cut the first pieces of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_cake" title="Wedding cake">wedding cake</a>. They then entwine arms and feed each other a bite of cake.</li><li>In some social groups, the bride and groom smear cake on each other's faces at this time.</li><li>The bride tosses her <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_bouquet" title="Flower bouquet">bouquet</a> over her shoulder to the assembled unmarried women; the woman who catches it, superstition has it, will be the next to marry. In some social groups, the process is repeated for unmarried men with the groom tossing the bride's garter for the same purpose.</li><li>Gifts are not opened at the reception; they are either opened ahead of time and sometimes displayed at the reception, or if guests could not deliver gifts ahead of time, they are placed on a table at the reception for the bride and groom to take home with them and open later.</li></ul> <p><a name="Wedding_gifts" id="Wedding_gifts"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding gifts</span></h5> <p>The purpose of inviting guests was to have them witness a couple's marriage ceremony and vows and to share in the bride and groom's joy and celebration. Gifts for the bride and groom are optional, although most guests attempt to give at least a token gift of their best wishes. Some brides and grooms and families feel, contrary to proper etiquette, that for the expense and effort they put into showing their guests a good time and to wine and dine them, the guests should reciprocate by providing nice gifts or cash.</p> <p>The couple often <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridal_registry" title="Bridal registry">registers</a></i> for gifts at a store well in advance of their wedding. This allows them to create a list of household items, usually including china, silverware and crystalware; often including linen preferences, pots and pans, and similar items. With brides and grooms who might already be independent and have lived on their own, even owning their own homes, they sometimes register at hardware or home improvement stores. Registries are intended to make it easy for guests who wish to purchase gifts to feel comfortable that they are purchasing gifts that the newlyweds will truly appreciate. The registry information should, according to etiquette, be provided only to guests who request it. Some couples register with services that enable money gifts intended to fund items such as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeymoon_registry" title="Honeymoon registry">honeymoon</a>, home purchase or college fund.</p> <p>Some guests may find <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridal_registry" title="Bridal registry">bridal registries</a> inappropriate. They can be seen as an anathema to traditional notions behind gift buying, such as contravening the belief that "one should be happy for what they receive", taking away the element of surprise, and leading to present buying as a type of competition, as the couple knows the costs of each individual item. It may also be seen by some as inappropriate to invite people who do not know either the bride or groom well enough to be able to pick out an appropriate gift.</p> <p><a name="African-American_customs" id="African-American_customs"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">African-American customs</span></h5> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumping_the_broom" title="Jumping the broom">Jumping the broom</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Jumping the broom developed out West African <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashanti_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Confederacy">Asante</a> custom. The broom in Asante and other Akan cultures also held spiritual value and symbolized sweeping away past wrongs or warding off evil spirits. Brooms were waved over the heads of marrying couples to ward off spirits. The couple would often but not always jump over the broom at the end of the ceremony.</p> <p>The custom took on additional significance in the context of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a>. Slaves had no right to legal marriage; slaveholders considered slaves property and feared that legal marriage and family bonds had the potential to lead to organization and revolt. Marriage rituals, however, were important events to the Africans, who came in many cases come from richly-ceremonial African cultures.</p> <p>Taking <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_vows" title="Marriage vows">marriage vows</a> in the presence of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">witness</a> and then leaping over the handle of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broom" title="Broom">broom</a> became the common practice to create a recognized union. Brooms are also symbols of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">hearth</a>, the center of the new family being created. Jumping the broom has become a practice in many modern weddings between Black Americans.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></p> <p>There are also traditions of broom jumping in Europe, in the Wicca and Celtic communities especially. They are probably unconnected with the African practice.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="African_customs" id="African_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">African customs</span></h3> <p><a name="Wedding_traditions" id="Wedding_traditions"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding traditions</span></h4> <p><a name="Pygmy_wedding_traditions" id="Pygmy_wedding_traditions"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Pygmy wedding traditions</span></h4> <p>Pygmy engagements were not long and usually formalized by an exchange of visits between the families concerned. The groom to be would bring a gift of game or maybe a few arrows to his new in-laws, take his bride home to live in his band and with his new parents. His only obligation is to find among his relatives a girl willing to marry a brother or male cousin of his wife. If he feels he can feed more than one wife, he may have additional wives.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-45578602060382982492008-03-28T13:31:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:32:55.984-07:00Wedding types and kinds<h2><span class="mw-headline">Wedding types and kinds</span></h2> <p><a name="Double_wedding" id="Double_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Double wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>double wedding</b> is a single ceremony where two affianced couples rendezvous for two separate weddings. Typically, a fiancé with a sibling might plan a double wedding with that sibling. In the Philippines, however, a double wedding between two siblings within the same year is considered bad luck and is called <i>sukob</i>.</p> <p><a name="Destination_wedding" id="Destination_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Destination wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>destination wedding</b> is any wedding in which the engaged couple and/or a majority of their guests travel to attend the ceremony. This could be a beach ceremony in the Caribbean, in Las Vegas or a simple ceremony in someone's back yard.</p> <p><a name="Weekend_wedding" id="Weekend_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Weekend wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>weekend wedding</b> is a wedding in which couples and their guests celebrate over the course of a weekend. Special activities, such as spa treatments and golf tournaments, may be scheduled into the wedding itinerary throughout the weekend. Lodging usually is at the same facility as the wedding and couples often host a Sunday brunch for the weekend's finale.</p> <p><a name="White_Wedding" id="White_Wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">White Wedding</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: white wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A <b>white wedding</b> is a term for a traditional formal or semi-formal Western <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong>. This term refers to the color of the wedding dress, which became popular in the Victorian era and came to symbolize purity of heart and the innocence of childhood. Later attribution suggested that the color white symbolized <span class="mw-redirect">virginity</span>.</p> <p><a name="Military_wedding" id="Military_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Military wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>military wedding</b> is a ceremony conducted in a military chapel and may involve a Saber Arch. In most military weddings the groom will wear a military dress uniform in lieu of a tuxedo, although most military formal wear is rather similar to tuxedos. Some retired military personnel who marry after their service has ended sometimes opt for a military wedding.</p> <p><a name="Civil_wedding" id="Civil_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Civil wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>civil wedding</b> is a ceremony presided over by a local civil authority, such as an <span class="mw-redirect">elected</span> or appointed judge, <span class="mw-redirect">justice of the peace</span> or the mayor of a locality. Civil wedding ceremonies may use references to God, but generally no references to a particular religion or denomination. They can be either elaborate or simple. Many civil wedding ceremonies take place in local town or city halls or courthouses in judge's chambers.</p> <p><a name="Same-sex_wedding" id="Same-sex_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Same-sex wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>same-sex wedding</b> or is a ceremony in which two people of the same sex are married or civilly united. This may be an official and legally recognized event, or, in places that do not allow same-sex marriage, it may simply be a symbolic ceremony designed to provide the opportunity to make the same public declarations and celebration with friends and family that any other type of wedding may afford.</p> <p><a name="Church_wedding" id="Church_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Church wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>church wedding</b> is a ceremony presided over by a Christian priest or pastor. Ceremonies are based on reference to God, are frequently embodied into other church ceremonies such as <span class="mw-redirect">Holy Mass</span>. Customs may vary widely between denominations.</p> <p><a name="Jewish_wedding" id="Jewish_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Jewish wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>Jewish wedding</b> is a ceremony presided over by someone who can read Hebrew and knows Jewish law, usually, but not necessarily, a rabbi. The rabbi recites the two wedding blessings, reads out the ketubah, and recites the seven blessings, or Sheva Brachot. Today, a second Rabbi or another honored guest is given the privilege of reading the ketubah, and seven other people are given the honor of reciting the blessings. The ceremony concludes when the groom breaks a glass underfoot.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-64436901236530924672008-03-28T13:29:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:31:44.476-07:00Overview<h2><span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p>Most weddings contain <span class="mw-redirect">wedding vows</span> and a proclamation of marriage, usually by the officiant. Most weddings also involve wearing traditional clothes (i.e., kilts, white gown, red sari, etc.). A wedding is often followed or accompanied by a wedding reception.</p> <p>Other elements may include music, poetry, prayer or scripture. Some elements of the traditional Western wedding ceremony symbolize the bride's departure from her father's control and entry into a new family with her husband. In modern Western weddings, this symbolism is largely vestigial.</p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A wedding carriage in Bristol, England" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wedding.carriage.bristol.arp.jpg/180px-Wedding.carriage.bristol.arp.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="134" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A wedding carriage in <span class="mw-redirect">Bristol</span>, England</div> </div> </div> <p>The common element in a wedding is the assumption of husband and wife roles as well as the roles of the future parents. The wedding is a special moment that marks the beginning of a new generation, a new family and a life together. This moment is recognized with traditions, ceremonies and rituals including engagement and wedding ceremonies.</p> <p>When it comes to planning a wedding people often honor traditions, even if they do not fully understand their origin or meaning. Every culture cherishes its own wedding traditions and superstitions. Some of those are closely followed even by those who are normally not superstitious.</p> <p>The figure of a bride in white is an important element of the ritual of marriage. However, new designs of gown are available so brides today may find themselves attracted to designs that do not look traditional. The symbolism behind the wedding dress, however, has not changed.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-42054852986441405492008-03-28T13:25:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:29:47.676-07:00Wedding<h1 class="firstHeading">Wedding</h1> <!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Notepad" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.png/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.png" border="0" height="40" width="40" /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><b><br /></b></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Preparing for the photographs, at a wedding at Thornbury Castle, England" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Wedding.smallgroup.arp.750pix.jpg/180px-Wedding.smallgroup.arp.750pix.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="141" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Preparing for the photographs, at a wedding at Thornbury Castle, England</div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>wedding</b> is a ceremony that celebrates the beginning of a marriage or civil union. <span class="mw-redirect">Wedding traditions and customs</span> vary greatly between cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes. In some countries, cultures and religions, the actual act of marriage begins during the wedding ceremony. In others, the legal act of marriage occurs at the time of signing a marriage license or other legal document, and the wedding is then an opportunity to perform a traditional ceremony and celebrate with friends and family. A woman being married is called a <span class="mw-redirect">bride</span>, a man called a <span class="mw-redirect">bridegroom</span>, and after the ceremony they become a wife and a husband.</p> <p><b>Nuptial</b> is the adjective of "wedding". It is used for example in zoology to denote plumage, coloration, behavior, etc related to or occurring in the <span class="mw-redirect">mating season</span>.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding types and kinds</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Double wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Destination wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Weekend wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">White Wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Military wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Civil wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Same-sex wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Church wedding</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.9</span> <span class="toctext">Jewish wedding</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">International wedding customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Common elements in wedding customs across cultures</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding clothing</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Music</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Western weddings</span></li><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Chinese weddings</span></li><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Jewish weddings</span></li></ul> </li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Asian customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Arabic customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bengali customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Chinese customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cantonese customs</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Filipino Customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Indian customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rajput customs</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Japanese customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Malay customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Pakistani customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.9</span> <span class="toctext">Russian customs</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">European customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">French customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Italian customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Polish customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Romanian customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Scottish customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Handfasting</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">North American customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">United States customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding gifts</span></li><li class="toclevel-4"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">African-American customs</span></li></ul> </li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">African customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding traditions</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Pygmy wedding traditions</span></li></ul> </li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Religious aspects of marriage</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Detailed viewpoints of various religions</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Religious customs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hindu customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Jewish customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Quaker customs</span></li><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">LDS customs</span></li></ul> </li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding traditions</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ceremony aspects</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Related travel</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Religious aspects</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.5</span> <span class="toctext">Related events and social processes</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Overview" id="Overview"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2> <p>Most weddings contain <span class="mw-redirect">wedding vows</span> and a proclamation of marriage, usually by the officiant. Most weddings also involve wearing traditional clothes (i.e., kilts, white gown, red sari, etc.). A wedding is often followed or accompanied by a wedding reception.</p> <p>Other elements may include music, poetry, prayer or scripture. Some elements of the traditional Western wedding ceremony symbolize the bride's departure from her father's control and entry into a new family with her husband. In modern Western weddings, this symbolism is largely vestigial.</p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A wedding carriage in Bristol, England" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wedding.carriage.bristol.arp.jpg/180px-Wedding.carriage.bristol.arp.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="134" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A wedding carriage in <span class="mw-redirect">Bristol</span>, England</div> </div> </div> <p>The common element in a wedding is the assumption of husband and wife roles as well as the roles of the future parents. The wedding is a special moment that marks the beginning of a new generation, a new family and a life together. This moment is recognized with traditions, ceremonies and rituals including engagement and wedding ceremonies.</p> <p>When it comes to planning a wedding people often honor traditions, even if they do not fully understand their origin or meaning. Every culture cherishes its own wedding traditions and superstitions. Some of those are closely followed even by those who are normally not superstitious.</p> <p>The figure of a bride in white is an important element of the ritual of marriage. However, new designs of gown are available so brides today may find themselves attracted to designs that do not look traditional. The symbolism behind the wedding dress, however, has not changed.</p> <p><a name="Wedding_types_and_kinds" id="Wedding_types_and_kinds"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding types and kinds</span></h2> <p><a name="Double_wedding" id="Double_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Double wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>double wedding</b> is a single ceremony where two affianced couples rendezvous for two separate weddings. Typically, a fiancé with a sibling might plan a double wedding with that sibling. In the Philippines, however, a double wedding between two siblings within the same year is considered bad luck and is called <i>sukob</i>.</p> <p><a name="Destination_wedding" id="Destination_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Destination wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>destination wedding</b> is any wedding in which the engaged couple and/or a majority of their guests travel to attend the ceremony. This could be a beach ceremony in the Caribbean, in Las Vegas or a simple ceremony in someone's back yard.</p> <p><a name="Weekend_wedding" id="Weekend_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Weekend wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>weekend wedding</b> is a wedding in which couples and their guests celebrate over the course of a weekend. Special activities, such as spa treatments and golf tournaments, may be scheduled into the wedding itinerary throughout the weekend. Lodging usually is at the same facility as the wedding and couples often host a Sunday brunch for the weekend's finale.</p> <p><a name="White_Wedding" id="White_Wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">White Wedding</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: white wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A <b>white wedding</b> is a term for a traditional formal or semi-formal Western <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong>. This term refers to the color of the wedding dress, which became popular in the Victorian era and came to symbolize purity of heart and the innocence of childhood. Later attribution suggested that the color white symbolized <span class="mw-redirect">virginity</span>.</p> <p><a name="Military_wedding" id="Military_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Military wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>military wedding</b> is a ceremony conducted in a military chapel and may involve a Saber Arch. In most military weddings the groom will wear a military dress uniform in lieu of a tuxedo, although most military formal wear is rather similar to tuxedos. Some retired military personnel who marry after their service has ended sometimes opt for a military wedding.</p> <p><a name="Civil_wedding" id="Civil_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Civil wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>civil wedding</b> is a ceremony presided over by a local civil authority, such as an <span class="mw-redirect">elected</span> or appointed judge, <span class="mw-redirect">justice of the peace</span> or the mayor of a locality. Civil wedding ceremonies may use references to God, but generally no references to a particular religion or denomination. They can be either elaborate or simple. Many civil wedding ceremonies take place in local town or city halls or courthouses in judge's chambers.</p> <p><a name="Same-sex_wedding" id="Same-sex_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Same-sex wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>same-sex wedding</b> or is a ceremony in which two people of the same sex are married or civilly united. This may be an official and legally recognized event, or, in places that do not allow same-sex marriage, it may simply be a symbolic ceremony designed to provide the opportunity to make the same public declarations and celebration with friends and family that any other type of wedding may afford.</p> <p><a name="Church_wedding" id="Church_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline"> wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>church wedding</b> is a ceremony presided over by a Christian priest or pastor. Ceremonies are based on reference to God, are frequently embodied into other church ceremonies such as <span class="mw-redirect">Holy Mass</span>. Customs may vary widely between denominations.</p> <p><a name="Jewish_wedding" id="Jewish_wedding"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Jewish wedding</span></h3> <p>A <b>Jewish wedding</b> is a ceremony presided over by someone who can read Hebrew and knows Jewish law, usually, but not necessarily, a rabbi. The rabbi recites the two wedding blessings, reads out the ketubah, and recites the seven blessings, or Sheva Brachot. Today, a second Rabbi or another honored guest is given the privilege of reading the ketubah, and seven other people are given the honor of reciting the blessings. The ceremony concludes when the groom breaks a glass underfoot.</p> <p><a name="International_wedding_customs" id="International_wedding_customs"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">International wedding customs</span></h2> <p><a name="Common_elements_in_wedding_customs_across_cultures" id="Common_elements_in_wedding_customs_across_cultures"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Common elements in wedding customs across cultures</span></h3> <p>A number of cultures utilise the western custom of a bride wearing a white dress. This tradition came to symbolize purity in the Victorian era (despite popular misconception, the white dress did not indicate virginity, which was symbolized by the face veil). Within the ‘white wedding’ tradition, a white dress and veil would not have been considered appropriate for a second or third wedding of a widow or a divorcee.</p> <p>The custom of exchanging rings may be the oldest and most universal symbol of marriage, but the origins are unclear. The ring’s circular shape represents perfection and never-ending love. The ring gains even greater symbolism with the inclusion of a precious stone.</p> <p>The rings are exchanged during the wedding ceremony and symbolize the love, faithfulness and commitment of the marriage union.</p> <p>The wedding is often followed by a reception during which the rituals include toasting the bride and groom, the newlyweds' first dance as husband and wife, cake cutting, etc.</p> <p><a name="Wedding_clothing" id="Wedding_clothing"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding clothing</span></h4> <ul><li><span class="mw-redirect">Qipao</span> or <span class="mw-redirect">Hanfu</span>, Chinese traditional formal wear</li><li>Batik and Kebaya, a garment worn by the Javanese people of Indonesia.</li><li>Barong Tagalog, an embroidered, formal men's garment of the Philippines.</li><li>Kimono, the traditional garments of Japan</li><li>Sari, Indian popular and traditional dress in India</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Ao dai</span>, traditional garments of Vietnam</li><li>Morning dress, men's formal dress</li><li>Kilt, male garment particular to Scottish culture<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup></li><li>Kittel, a white robe worn by the groom at an Orthodox Jewish wedding. The kittel is worn only under the <span class="mw-redirect">Chupah</span>, and is removed before the reception.</li><li>Topor, a type of conical headgear</li><li>Tuxedo <ul><li>Black tie, indicating dinner jacket in the UK</li><li>White tie, indicating evening dress in the UK</li></ul> </li><li>Sherwani, a long coat-like garment worn in South Asia</li><li>Wedding crown, worn by Scandinavian brides</li><li>Wedding veil</li><li>Wedding dress</li></ul> <p><a name="Music" id="Music"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h4> <p><a name="Western_weddings" id="Western_weddings"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Western weddings</span></h5> <p>Music often played at western weddings includes a processional song for walking down the aisle (ex: <span class="mw-redirect">Wedding March</span>) and reception dance music.</p> <p>Music played at Western weddings includes:</p> <ul><li>The "Bridal Chorus" from <i>Lohengrin</i> by Richard Wagner, often used as the processional and commonly known as "Here Comes the Bride" - Note: Richard Wagner is said to have been <span class="mw-redirect">Anti-Semitic</span><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup>, and as a result, the Bridal Chorus is often not used at Jewish weddings.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></li><li>Johann Pachelbel's <span class="mw-redirect">Canon in D</span> is often used as an alternative processional.</li><li>The "Wedding March" from Felix Mendelssohn's incidental music for the Shakespeare play, <i>A Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, often used as a recessional.</li><li>The "Toccata" from Charles-Marie Widor's <i>Symphony for Organ No. 5</i>, also used as a recessional.</li><li>Segments of the <span class="mw-redirect">Ode To Joy</span>, the fourth movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's <span class="mw-redirect">Ninth Symphony</span>, sometimes make appearances at weddings; its message of unity is suitable for the occasion.</li><li>At wedding receptions, <i>Der Ententanz</i>, a 1950s Swiss Oom-pah song known more commonly in America as <i>The Chicken Dance</i>, has become a popular part of the reception dance music.</li></ul> <div class="medialist listenlist"> <ul><li style="list-style-type: none; list-style-image: none; list-style-position: outside; display: inline;"> <table style="background-color: transparent;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Bridal march</td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div id="ogg_player_1" style="width: 180px;"> <div><button onclick="'wgOggPlayer.init(false," style="width: 180px; text-align: center;" title="Play sound"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/extensions/OggHandler/play.png" alt="Play sound" height="22" width="22" /></button></div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 4pt 4pt 4pt 0pt; font-size: 8pt; text-align: left; line-height: 1.25em;">The Bridal Chorus from Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin</td> </tr> </tbody></table> </li><li><i>Problems playing the files? See media help.</i></li></ul> </div> <p><a name="Chinese_weddings" id="Chinese_weddings"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Chinese weddings</span></h5> <p>Chinese music plays an important role in creating a happy, friendly environment during the wedding ceremony. A band of musicians with gongs and flute-like instruments accompanies the bride parade to groom's home. Similar music is also played at the wedding banquet.</p> <p><a name="Jewish_weddings" id="Jewish_weddings"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Jewish weddings</span></h5> <p>At traditional Jewish weddings, a solemn, wordless tune is sung as the groom and then bride walk down the aisles. Chabad tradition is to sing a special tune composed by their founding Rebbe, Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, the tune is comprised of four stanzas corresponding to the <span class="mw-redirect">four worlds</span> of <span class="mw-redirect">kabbalistic</span> cosmology, and is only sung at solemn occasions<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup>. During the recessional, lively Hebrew songs are sung by the guests, who escort the couple from the chuppah.</p> <p><a name="Asian_customs" id="Asian_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Asian customs</span></h3> <p>Customs vary throughout the Asian continent.</p> <p><a name="Arabic_customs" id="Arabic_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Arabic customs</span></h4> <p>Arabic weddings vary depending on the country and religion of the bride and groom. Although Christian weddings in the Arab World bear clear similarities to Western weddings, the Muslim weddings in the Arab countries are influenced by Muslim traditions. Muslim weddings (pre-arranged or not) start with a Shaikh and Al-Kitab (book) for the bride and groom. The groom may or may not see his bride until the wedding day. Men and women in wedding ceremonies and receptions are segregated affairs, with areas for both men and women. An old tradition, now rarely observed, involves the women at the ceremony symbolically mourning the loss of the bride by doing the "wedding wail". The bride's dress is an ornate Caftan, and the bride's hands and feet are decorated in intricate lace-like patterns painted using a henna dye. Customarily women guests do not show their hair, shoulders or legs; and all guests at a Mosque remove their shoes on entering. Guests may give gifts to the bride and groom. However, these are all the old traditions; Arabs, nowadays, have Western-like weddings, but still preserve most Arab customs and traditions.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Bengali_customs" id="Bengali_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bengali customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Bengali wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p><b>Bengali wedding</b> refers to both Muslim <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong> and Hindu wedding in Bangladesh and West Bengal. Although Muslim and Hindu marriages have their distinctive religious rituals, there are many common cultural rituals in marriages across religion among Bengali people.</p> <p><a name="Chinese_customs" id="Chinese_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Chinese customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Chinese marriage</i></div> </dd><dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: Chinese tea culture and <span class="mw-redirect">Red packet</span></i></span></dd></dl> <p><b>Chinese marriage</b> is a ceremonial ritual within Chinese societies that involve a marriage established by pre-arrangement between families. Within <span class="mw-redirect">Chinese culture</span>, romantic love was allowed, and monogamy was the norm for most ordinary citizens.</p> <p><a name="Cantonese_customs" id="Cantonese_customs"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Cantonese customs</span></h5> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Cantonese wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Most <b>Cantonese wedding</b> rituals follow the main <span class="mw-redirect">Chinese wedding</span> traditions. Although some rituals are unique to the Cantonese people.</p> <p><a name="Filipino_Customs" id="Filipino_Customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Filipino Customs</span></h4> <p>Customs and superstitions regarding marriage in the Philippines vary. Some examples are:</p> <ul><li>The groom usually wears the Barong Tagalog during the wedding, along with the male attendants, though nowadays the wealthy opt to don Western attire such as a tuxedo.</li><li><i>Sukob</i>: weddings held within the same year by two siblings, usually sisters, are frowned upon as it is regarded as bad luck.</li><li>Some hold it that the wedding rings dropping to the ground is a portent of bad luck (this is usually said to the ringbearer to ensure that the child is careful in handling the rings).</li><li>Money, in the form of paper bills, is sometimes taped or pinned to the groom and bride during the reception.</li></ul> <p><a name="Indian_customs" id="Indian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Indian customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Indian wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p><b>Indian weddings</b> are very bright events, filled with ritual and celebration, that continue for several days. They are not small affairs, often with 400-1000 people attending (many of whom are unknown to the <span class="mw-redirect">bride</span> and groom). Although most marriages are arranged, some couples in urban areas are having love marriages.</p> <p><a name="Rajput_customs" id="Rajput_customs"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Rajput customs</span></h5> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Rajput wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Rajputs - one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India - traditionally had their own typical rituals of marriage as it is one of the most important functions of life. It is relation which is created for seven generations between the two families of the Bride & the Groom. It comprises a ceremony each for the <i>TILAK</i> (engagement), the <i>BAN</i> (starting of the wedding ceremony, <i>MEL</i> the community feast, the <i>Nikasi</i> is the departure of the Bridegroom party for the wedding, <i>Sehla</i> & <i>Dhukav</i> reception of wedding party at the Brides place be her parents. Solemnisation of wedding <i>Sat Fere</i>.</p> <p><a name="Japanese_customs" id="Japanese_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Japanese customs</span></h4> <p>Traditional Japanese wedding customs (shinzen shiki) have given way to the "Western Style Wedding" in recent years. The Japanese have long tried to emulate and improve upon Western tradition. To that end, a Japanese western style wedding is held in a chapel, either in a simple or elaborate ceremony, often at a chapel within a hotel. Typically, much like in Western culture, the bride, or shinpu, and groom, or shinro, get their own changing rooms within the chapel, as does the bride's father and any other important guest who requires such a room. There is also a room to hold the reception afterwards.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A traditional Japanese wedding ceremony" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/MeijiShrineWedding.jpg/180px-MeijiShrineWedding.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="121" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A traditional Japanese wedding ceremony</div> </div> </div> <p>Before the ceremony, there is a rehearsal. Often during this rehearsal, the bride's mother lowers the veil for her daughter, signifying the last act that a mother can do for her daughter, before giving her away. The father of the bride, much like in Western culture, walks the bride down the aisle to her awaiting groom.</p> <p>After the rehearsal comes the procession. The wedding celebrant will often wear a wedding cross, or cana, a cross with two interlocking wedding rings attached, which symbolize a couple's commitment to sharing a life together in the bonds of holy matrimony. The wedding celebrant gives a brief welcome and an introductory speech before announcing the bride's entrance. The procession ends with the groom bowing to the bride's father. The father bows in return.</p> <p>The service, or kekkon shiki, then starts. The service is given either in Japanese or English, or, in some cases, a mix of both. It follows a traditional Protestant ceremony, relaxed and not overtly religious. The opening hymn is usually the Japanese version of What a Friend We Have in Jesus. Part of 1 Corinthians 13 is read from the Bible. After the reading, there is a prayer and a short message, explaining the sanctity of the wedding vows, or seiyaku. The bride and groom share their vows and exchange rings. The chapel register is signed and the new couple is announced. This is often followed by the traditional wedding kiss. The service concludes with another hymn and a benediction.</p> <p><a name="Malay_customs" id="Malay_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Malay customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Malay wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A <b>Malay wedding</b> ceremony spreads over two days, beginning with the <i>akad nikah</i> ceremony. The groom signs the marriage contract and agrees to provide the bride with a <i>mas kahwin</i>(dowry). After that, their hands are dyed with henna during the berinai besar ceremony. The bride's hair is also trimmed or her eyebrows shaped by a beautician known as the <i>mak andam</i>.</p> <p><a name="Pakistani_customs" id="Pakistani_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Pakistani customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Pakistani wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A Pakistani wedding typically consist of four ceremonies on four separate days.</p> <p><a name="Russian_customs" id="Russian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Russian customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Russian wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A traditional Russian <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong> lasts for at least two days and some weddings last as long as a week. Throughout the celebration there is dancing, singing, long toasts, and a lot of food and drinks. The best man and maid of honor are called witnesses, “svideteli” in Russian. The ceremony and the ring exchange takes place on the first day of the wedding and on this special day many events take place. Throughout the years, Russian weddings have adopted many western cultures, including bridesmaids and flower girls.</p> <p><a name="European_customs" id="European_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">European customs</span></h3> <p>Customs vary throughout the European continent.</p> <p>The Western custom of a bride wearing a white wedding dress, came to symbolize purity in the Victorian era (despite popular misconception and the hackneyed jokes of <span class="mw-redirect">situation comedies</span> the white dress did not actually indicate <span class="mw-redirect">virginity</span>, which was symbolized by a face veil). Within the "white wedding" tradition, a white dress and veil would not have been considered appropriate in the second or third wedding of a widow or divorcee. The specific conventions of Western weddings, largely from a Protestant and Catholic viewpoint, are discussed at "White wedding."</p> <p>A wedding is often followed or accompanied by a wedding reception, at which an elaborate wedding cake is served. Western traditions include toasting the couple, the newlyweds having the first dance, and cutting the cake. A bride may throw her bouquet to the assembled group of all unmarried women in attendance, with folklore suggesting the person who catches it will be the next to wed. A fairly recent equivalent has the groom throwing the bride's garter to the assembled unmarried men; the man who catches it is supposedly the next to wed.</p> <p>A modern tradition is for brides to wear or carry "something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue" during the service. It is considered good luck to do so. Often the bride attempts to have one item that meets all of these qualifications, such as a borrowed blue handkerchief which is "new to her" but loaned by her grandmother (thus making it old).</p> <p><a name="French_customs" id="French_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">French customs</span></h4> <p>In smaller French towns, the groom may meet his fiancée at her home on the day of the wedding and escort her to the chapel where the ceremony is being held. As the couple proceeds to the chapel, children will stretch long white ribbons across the road which the bride will cut as she passes.</p> <p>At the chapel, the bride and groom are seated on two red velvet chairs underneath a silk canopy they called a <i>carre</i>. Laurel leaves may be scattered across their paths when they exit the chapel. Sometimes small coins are also tossed for the children to gather.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A traditional French wedding celebration at Château de Hattonchâtel" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ec/Weddinghattonchatel.jpg/180px-Weddinghattonchatel.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="135" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A traditional French wedding celebration at Château de Hattonchâtel</div> </div> </div> <p>At the reception, the couple customarily uses a toasting cup, called a <i>Coupe de Marriage</i>. The origin of giving toast began in France, when they literally dropped a small piece of toast into the couple's wine (to ensure a healthy life). They lifted their glass to "a toast", as is common in Western culture today.</p> <p>Some couples choose to serve a croquembouche instead of a wedding cake. The dessert is a pyramid of crème-filled pastry puffs, drizzled with a caramel glaze.</p> <p>At a more boisterous wedding, tradition involves continuing the celebration until very late at night. After the reception, those invited to the wedding will gather outside the newlyweds' window and bang pots and pans. They are then invited into the house for some more drinks in the couple's honor, after which the couple is finally allowed to be alone for their first night together as husband and wife.</p> <p>Another practice that is becoming more common at wedding celebrations is "beheading" a bottle of champagne with a sabre made for the occasion. It was started as a way for the <span class="mw-redirect">Hussars</span> (under <span class="mw-redirect">Napoleon</span>'s command) to celebrate victories and exhibit their horseback skills: they would "behead" the top off a bottle of champagne while on horseback. Legend has it that the skilled horsemen would ride at a full gallop while brave women held up bottles of champagne. The sabre must strike the neck of the bottle at exactly the right angle (champagne bottles have over 100 pounds of pressure per square inch).</p> <p>This practice spread throughout France as a way to celebrate special occasions. Decorative replicas of these special sabres can be purchased from <span class="mw-redirect">artisans</span> in <span class="mw-redirect">Lyon, France</span> (the French capital of cutlery).</p> <p><a name="Italian_customs" id="Italian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Italian customs</span></h4> <p>At the start of a typical Italian wedding reception, the <span class="mw-redirect">bridal party</span> and the rest of the guests are separated for an hour and served cocktails. The food during <span class="new">cocktail hour</span> is served in a buffet setup. During the cocktail time, the bride and the groom usually take their time to shoot photographs in a proper setting.</p> <p>At the conclusion of cocktail hour, the guests will gather in the main dining room. The newlywed couple is introduced with much fanfare and they take their first dance, with the bridal party following soon after, who are then ultimately joined by the rest of the guests. Afterwards, everyone is seated, speeches are made by friends and family, and everyone champagne toasts the wedded couple.</p> <p>Food is plentiful during most weddings, and Italian custom is no exception. Between courses, the MC will encourage dancing.</p> <p>After the bulk of the courses have passed, it is time for the <span class="mw-redirect">cake cutting</span>, which ushers in the dessert course. In Sicilian customs, the dessert course is often presented as a <span class="new">Venetian Table</span>, a dazzling array of pastries, fruits, coffees, cakes, (etc) are presented in great quantity with much celebration. This is often called Venetian Hour.</p> <p>After dessert, more dancing commences, gifts are given, and the guests eventually begin to leave. In Southern Italy, as the guests leave, they hand envelopes of money to the bride and groom, who return the gift with a <span class="mw-redirect">wedding favor</span>, a small token of appreciation.</p> <p><a name="Polish_customs" id="Polish_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Polish customs</span></h4> <p>Polish weddings are festive and traditional. The wedding celebrations may continue for two or three days. The engagement is also an important custom. In the past, the engagement ceremony was organized by the future groom as a formal family gathering, during which he asked his chosen lady to marry him. In the recent years this official custom has changed and today an engagement is much more personal and intimate. An elegant dinner party afterwards is still a nice way to inform the closest family members about the couples' decision to get married.</p> <p>In some regions of Poland the tradition to invite the wedding guests in person is still upheld. Many young couples still devote their time, and accompanied by the parents visit their family and friends to hand them the wedding invitations personally.</p> <p>According to the old tradition a groom arrives with his parents at the house of a bride just before the wedding ceremony. At that time both parents and parents-in-law give a young couple their blessing. The couple enters the church together and walks up to the altar followed by two witnesses and the parents. In Poland it is quite unusual for the bride to be walked down the aisle or to have bridesmaids and groomsmen in a wedding. The couple is assisted by two witnesses, a man (usually grooms' side) and a woman (usually brides' side) who are either family members or close friends.</p> <p>The Polish bride traditionally wears a white dress and a veil. The groom, on the other hand usually wears a fitted suit with a bow tie and a boutonnière that matches the brides' bouquet. During the ceremony wedding rings are exchanged and both the husband and wife wear them on their right hand. When they leave the church the guests toss rice or coins at the married couple for good and prosperous future together. Right after the ceremony the closest family and all the guest form a line in the front of the church to congratulate the happy newlyweds and wish them love and happiness. As soon as the married couple leave the church they get showered with rice for luck or guests drop coins at their feet for them to pick up.</p> <p>Once all the guests have showered the couple with kisses, hugs and flowers everyone heads to the reception. It is a very popular custom in Poland to prepare "passing gates" on the way to the reception for the newlyweds, who in order to pass have to give the "gate keepers" some vodka.</p> <p>The married couple is welcomed at the reception place by the parents with bread and salt. The bread symbolizes the prosperity, salt stands for hardship of life, the parents wish the young couple that they never go hungry and learn how to deal with every day hardships together. The wedding party lasts until the last guest leaves, usually until morning.</p> <p><a name="Romanian_customs" id="Romanian_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Romanian customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Lăutari</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Lăutari are musicians performing traditional songs. The music of the lăutari establishes the structure of the elaborate Romanian peasant weddings. The lăutari also function as guides through the wedding rituals and moderate any conflicts that may arise during what can be a long, alcohol-fueled party. Over a period of nearly 48 hours, this can be very physically strenuous.</p> <p>Following custom almost certainly dating back at least to the Middle Ages, most lăutari spend the fees from these wedding ceremonies on extended banquets for their friends and families over the days immediately following the wedding.</p> <p><a name="Scottish_customs" id="Scottish_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Scottish customs</span></h4> <p>Scotland is a popular place for young English couples to get married, due to the fact that in Scotland, parents' permission is not required if both the bride and groom are old enough to legally be married (16). In England it was the case that if either was 16 or 17 then the permission of parents had to be sought. Thus Scotland, and especially the blacksmith's at Gretna Green, became a very popular place for couples to elope to, especially those under 18 and usually living in England. Gretna Green now hosts hundreds of weddings a year and is Scotland's third most popular tourist attraction.</p> <p>Customs:</p> <ul><li>The bride's family sends invitations on behalf of the couple to the wedding guests, addressed by hand. The couple may send the invitations themselves, especially if they are more middle-aged. The invites will specify if the invitation is for ceremony and/or reception and/or evening following the meal at the reception.</li><li>Guests send or deliver wedding gifts to the bride's family home before the wedding day. Alternatively, the couple may register at department store and have a list of gifts there. The shop then organizes delivery, usually to the bride's parents' house or to the reception venue.</li><li>A wedding ceremony takes place at a church, register office or possibly another favorite location, such as a hilltop. In this regard Scotland differs significantly from England where only pre-approved public locations may be used for the wedding ceremony. Most ceremonies take place mid afternoon and last about half an hour during which the marriage schedule is signed by the couple and two witnesses, usually the best man and chief bridesmaid.</li><li>The newly wed couple usually leave the ceremony to the sound of <span class="mw-redirect">bagpipes</span>.</li><li>There is a wedding reception following the ceremony, usually at a different venue.</li><li>The bridal party lines up in a receiving line and the wedding guests file past, introducing themselves.</li><li>Usually a drink is served while the guests and bridal party mingle. In some cases the drink may be <span class="mw-redirect">whiskey</span> or wine with a non alcoholic alternative.</li><li>The <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span> and bride's father toast the bride and groom with personal thoughts, stories, and well-wishes, usually humorous. The groom then follows with a response on behalf of his bride. Champagne is usually provided for the toast.</li><li>There is nearly always dancing following the meal. Often in Scotland this takes the form of a <span class="mw-redirect">ceilidh</span>, a night of informal traditional Scottish dancing in couples and groups to live traditional music. The first dance is led by the bride and groom, followed by the rest of the bridal party and finally the guests.</li><li>The cake-cutting ceremony takes place; the bride and groom jointly hold a cake cutter and cut the first pieces of the wedding cake.</li><li>Gifts are not opened at the reception; they are either opened ahead of time and sometimes displayed at the reception, or if guests could not deliver gifts ahead of time, they are placed on a table at the reception for the bride and groom to take home with them and open later.</li><li>A sprig of white heather is usually worn as a buttonhole for good luck.</li><li>It is the norm for the groom and much of the male <span class="mw-redirect">bridal party</span> and guests to wear kilts, although suits are also worn. Kilts and Highland dress are often hired for this purpose.</li></ul> <p><a name="Handfasting" id="Handfasting"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Handfasting</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Handfasting</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Handfasting is an ancient Celtic wedding ritual in which the bride's and groom's hands are tied together — hence the phrase "tying the knot". "Handfasting" is favored by practitioners of Celtic-based religions and spiritual traditions, such as Wicca and <span class="mw-redirect">Druidism</span>.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since August 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="North_American_customs" id="North_American_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">North American customs</span></h3> <p><a name="United_States_customs" id="United_States_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">United States customs</span></h4> <p>A Christian or other mainstream wedding and reception in the United States follow a similar pattern to the Italian wedding. Customs and traditions vary but components include the following:</p> <ul><li>The bride wears “something old, something new, something borrowed, and something blue.” (See also Ceremonial clothing in Western cultures.)</li><li>The bride usually wears a white dress.</li><li>A color scheme is often used so that the invitation matches the <span class="mw-redirect">bridesmaids</span>' dresses and the table settings.</li><li>Rice is sometimes thrown at the newlyweds as they leave the ceremony.<span class="external autonumber">[1]</span></li><li>The bride's family sends engraved invitations to the wedding guests, addressed by hand to show the importance and personal meaning of the occasion.</li><li>Guests send or deliver wedding gifts to the bride's family home before the wedding day.</li><li>A wedding ceremony takes place at a church or other location, such as an outdoor venue.</li></ul> <p>At the wedding reception following the ceremony, sometimes at the same location but sometimes at a different venue:</p> <ul><li>The bridal party lines up in a <span class="new">receiving line</span> and the wedding guests file past, introducing themselves.</li><li>Usually <span class="mw-redirect">snacks</span> or a meal are served while the guests and bridal party mingle.</li><li>Often the <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span> and/or <span class="mw-redirect">maid of honor</span> toast the bride and groom with personal thoughts, stories, and well-wishes; sometimes other guests follow with their own toasts. Champagne, <span class="mw-redirect">sparkling cider</span>, or nonalcoholic <span class="mw-redirect">carbonated</span> drinks are usually provided for this purpose.</li><li>Clinking silverware against glassware obliges the newlyweds to kiss.</li><li>If dancing is provided, the bride and groom first dance together. Often further protocol is followed, where they dance first with their respective mother and father, then possibly with the <span class="mw-redirect">maid of honor</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">best man</span>; then the bride and groom rejoin while the parents of the bride and groom join the dance and the best man and maid of honor dance together; then other attendants join in; then finally everyone is entitled to dance. Dancing continues throughout the reception. Music is sometimes provided by a live <span class="mw-redirect">band</span> or musical ensemble, sometimes by a disc jockey.</li><li>In some cultures, the <span class="mw-redirect">money dance</span> takes place, in which it is expected and encouraged for guests to pin money onto the young bride and groom to help them get started in their new lives.</li><li>The cake-cutting ceremony takes place; the bride and groom jointly hold a cake cutter--often a special silver keepsake cutter purchased or given as a gift for the occasion--and cut the first pieces of the wedding cake. They then entwine arms and feed each other a bite of cake.</li><li>In some social groups, the bride and groom smear cake on each other's faces at this time.</li><li>The bride tosses her bouquet over her shoulder to the assembled unmarried women; the woman who catches it, superstition has it, will be the next to marry. In some social groups, the process is repeated for unmarried men with the groom tossing the bride's garter for the same purpose.</li><li>Gifts are not opened at the reception; they are either opened ahead of time and sometimes displayed at the reception, or if guests could not deliver gifts ahead of time, they are placed on a table at the reception for the bride and groom to take home with them and open later.</li></ul> <p><a name="Wedding_gifts" id="Wedding_gifts"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding gifts</span></h5> <p>The purpose of inviting guests was to have them witness a couple's marriage ceremony and vows and to share in the bride and groom's joy and celebration. Gifts for the bride and groom are optional, although most guests attempt to give at least a token gift of their best wishes. Some brides and grooms and families feel, contrary to proper etiquette, that for the expense and effort they put into showing their guests a good time and to wine and dine them, the guests should reciprocate by providing nice gifts or cash.</p> <p>The couple often <i>registers</i> for gifts at a store well in advance of their wedding. This allows them to create a list of household items, usually including china, silverware and crystalware; often including linen preferences, pots and pans, and similar items. With brides and grooms who might already be independent and have lived on their own, even owning their own homes, they sometimes register at hardware or home improvement stores. Registries are intended to make it easy for guests who wish to purchase gifts to feel comfortable that they are purchasing gifts that the newlyweds will truly appreciate. The registry information should, according to etiquette, be provided only to guests who request it. Some couples register with services that enable money gifts intended to fund items such as a honeymoon, home purchase or college fund.</p> <p>Some guests may find bridal registries inappropriate. They can be seen as an anathema to traditional notions behind gift buying, such as contravening the belief that "one should be happy for what they receive", taking away the element of surprise, and leading to present buying as a type of competition, as the couple knows the costs of each individual item. It may also be seen by some as inappropriate to invite people who do not know either the bride or groom well enough to be able to pick out an appropriate gift.</p> <p><a name="African-American_customs" id="African-American_customs"></a></p> <h5><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">African-American customs</span></h5> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Jumping the broom</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Jumping the broom developed out West African <span class="mw-redirect">Asante</span> custom. The broom in Asante and other Akan cultures also held spiritual value and symbolized sweeping away past wrongs or warding off evil spirits. Brooms were waved over the heads of marrying couples to ward off spirits. The couple would often but not always jump over the broom at the end of the ceremony.</p> <p>The custom took on additional significance in the context of slavery in the United States. Slaves had no right to legal marriage; slaveholders considered slaves property and feared that legal marriage and family bonds had the potential to lead to organization and revolt. Marriage rituals, however, were important events to the Africans, who came in many cases come from richly-ceremonial African cultures.</p> <p>Taking marriage vows in the presence of a witness and then leaping over the handle of a broom became the common practice to create a recognized union. Brooms are also symbols of the hearth, the center of the new family being created. Jumping the broom has become a practice in many modern weddings between Black Americans.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>There are also traditions of broom jumping in Europe, in the Wicca and Celtic communities especially. They are probably unconnected with the African practice.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="African_customs" id="African_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">African customs</span></h3> <p><a name="Wedding_traditions" id="Wedding_traditions"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding traditions</span></h4> <p><a name="Pygmy_wedding_traditions" id="Pygmy_wedding_traditions"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Pygmy wedding traditions</span></h4> <p>Pygmy engagements were not long and usually formalized by an exchange of visits between the families concerned. The groom to be would bring a gift of game or maybe a few arrows to his new in-laws, take his bride home to live in his band and with his new parents. His only obligation is to find among his relatives a girl willing to marry a brother or male cousin of his wife. If he feels he can feed more than one wife, he may have additional wives.</p> <p><a name="Religious_aspects_of_marriage" id="Religious_aspects_of_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Religious aspects of marriage</span></h2> <p>In virtually all religions, marriage is a long-term union between two people and is established with ceremonies and rituals. The two people are most commonly a man and a woman, though many societies have permitted <span class="mw-redirect">polygamous</span> marriages, and same-sex marriage is now acknowledged in some places.</p> <p>Many religions have extensive teachings regarding marriage. Most Christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage; the wedding ceremony typically includes some sort of pledge by the community to support the couple's relationship. In the Roman Catholic Church "Holy Matrimony" is considered to be one of the seven sacraments, in this case one that the spouses bestow upon each other in front of a priest and members of the community as witnesses. An argument for the institution of the sacrament of Matrimony by Christ Jesus himself, and its occasion, is advanced by Bernard Orchard in his article <i>The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph</i>. <span class="external autonumber">[2]</span> <span class="external autonumber">[3]</span> <span class="external autonumber">[4]</span> In the Eastern Orthodox church, it is one of the Mysteries, and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom. In marriage, Christians see a picture of the relationship between Jesus Christ and His Church. In Judaism, marriage is so important that remaining unmarried is deemed unnatural. Islam also recommends marriage highly; among other things, it helps in the pursuit of spiritual perfection. The Bahá'í Faith sees marriage as a foundation of the structure of society, and considers it both a physical and spiritual bond that endures into the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-oneworld_5-0" class="reference">[6]</sup> Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. By contrast, Buddhism does not encourage or discourage marriage, although it does teach how one might live a happily married life and emphasizes that married vows are not to be taken slightly (see separate article for details).</p> <p>Different religions have different beliefs as regards the breakup of marriage. For example, the Roman Catholic Church believes it is morally wrong to divorce, and divorcées cannot remarry in a church marriage, though they can do in the eyes of the law. In the area of nullity, religions and the state often apply different rules, meaning that a couple, for example, could have their marriage annulled by the Catholic Church but still be married in the eyes of the law because the state disagrees with the church over whether an annulment can be granted in a given case. This produces the phenomenon of Catholics getting church annulments simultaneously with civil divorces, so that they may remarry both legally and sacramentally. The Catholic Church will not, in fact, grant an annulment petition unless the marriage has also been dissolved or annulled under civil law.</p> <p><a name="Detailed_viewpoints_of_various_religions" id="Detailed_viewpoints_of_various_religions"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Detailed viewpoints of various religions</span></h3> <ul><li>Ayyavazhi marriage</li><li>Bahá'í marriage</li><li>Buddhist view of marriage</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Christian view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Latter-day Saint view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Hindu view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Islamic view of marriage</span></li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Jewish view of marriage</span></li><li>handfasting</li></ul> <p><a name="Religious_customs" id="Religious_customs"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Religious customs</span></h3> <p><a name="Hindu_customs" id="Hindu_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Hindu customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Hindu wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p><b>North and South Indian wedding</b> ceremonies are conducted at least partially in Sanskrit, the language in which most holy Hindu ceremonies are conducted. The local language of the people involved is also used since most Hindus cannot understand Sanskrit. They may have rituals that differ fom the modern western <strong class="selflink">wedding</strong> ceremony and also among the different regions, families, and castes such as <span class="mw-redirect">Rajput Wedding</span>, Aggarwal Weddings, Iyer Weddings and Tamil Weddings. The ceremonies are colourful and extend for several days.</p> <p><a name="Jewish_customs" id="Jewish_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Jewish customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Jewish view of marriage</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The traditions used in a Jewish wedding vary based on the denomination of Judaism of the people being married. Some of the most common are listed below.</p> <p>The bride (<i>kallah</i>) and groom (<i>chatan</i>) sign a Ketubah (marriage contract). Originally, the Ketubah detailed the husband's obligations to his wife, and provided for monetary payment to her in case of divorce. Nowadayst the Ketubah can be a decorative keepsake that sets out expectations for both the bride and groom. In Conservative homes it is typically framed and displayed, while in Orthodox homes it is kept hidden away.</p> <p>The Jewish ceremony generally starts with the bride and groom being escorted to the <span class="mw-redirect">huppah</span> (Jewish wedding canopy) by both sets of parents. The ceremony takes place under the huppah, and is presided over by a Rabbi. After the vows, seven marriage blessings are read and the groom then smashes a glass with his foot. The bride and groom spend time together alone before the reception, which is traditionally a joyous celebration with much music and dancing.</p> <p>There are several activities that may take place during the reception:</p> <ul><li>The wedding breakfast.</li><li>A dance in which the bride and groom hold opposite corners of a handkerchief while they are lifted up on chairs by the guests and whirled around.</li><li>The <b>Krenzl</b>, in which the bride's mother is crowned with a wreath of flowers as her daughters dance around her (traditionally at the wedding of the mother's last unwed daughter).</li><li>The <b>Mizinke</b>, a dance for the parents of the bride or groom when their last child is wed.</li><li>The <b>gladdening of the bride</b>, in which guests dance around the bride, and can include the use of "shtick" -- silly items such as signs, banners, costumes, confetti, and jump ropes made of table napkins.</li><li>The singing of <b>Aishet Chayil</b> to the bride by the groom accompanied by his friends.</li></ul> <p><a name="Quaker_customs" id="Quaker_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Quaker customs</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Quaker wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>A Quaker wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other Meeting for Worship, and therefore often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends.</p> <p><a name="LDS_customs" id="LDS_customs"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">LDS customs</span></h4> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-merge"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Celestial marriage</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormons), the act of marriage is regarded as an eternal affair. As such, there are two kinds of marriages recognized by the Church, civil marriage and celestial marriage. Civil marriages are those legally contracted under local law and are dissolved upon the death of the participants, while celestial marriages, also known as sealings, bind the participants as husband and wife for all eternity if both are righteous.</p> <p>Celestial marriages can only be performed by Priesthood authority within a Sealing Room in a dedicated temple. Only members of the LDS church who have a temple recommend may attend an LDS wedding. The wedding is often referred to as a sealing, in which husband and wife are sealed beyond death into the next life. Space is limited in sealing rooms so only family and close friends attend.</p> <p>The sealing can be performed at the same approximate time as the civil marriage or for a couple civilly married for at least one year. In the latter case, if the couple already has children, they may also accompany the ceremony to be sealed to their parents. Children who are born to parents who have already been sealed need no such ceremony, as they have been "born in the covenant."</p> <p>Many LDS couples will then hold wedding receptions or open houses after the wedding ceremony in another venue that is open to all family and friends. Some couples choose to recreate a more traditional wedding ceremony, or will simply perform certain traditional acts, such as the throwing of the bouquet, first dance, etc.</p> <p><a name="Gallery" id="Gallery"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2> <table class="gallery" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 24px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pernikahan.jpg/120px-Pernikahan.jpg" border="0" height="98" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Sundanese wedding in Indonesia.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Egypt-Nubian_wedding.jpg/120px-Egypt-Nubian_wedding.jpg" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Nubian wedding, near Aswan, Egypt.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Wedding_at_the_Victory_Monument_in_Minsk_2007-03-03.jpg/90px-Wedding_at_the_Victory_Monument_in_Minsk_2007-03-03.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="90" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Wedding ceremony at the Victory Monument in Minsk.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Maria_Palowicz_i_Karol_Semik_-_1936.jpg/120px-Maria_Palowicz_i_Karol_Semik_-_1936.jpg" border="0" height="85" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Wedding in Poland, 1936.</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cb/Bengali_wedding_edit1.jpg/120px-Bengali_wedding_edit1.jpg" border="0" height="80" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Bride and groom wearing traditional Bengali wedding costumes, from Bangladesh.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/East_Timorese_hakka_wedding.jpg/120px-East_Timorese_hakka_wedding.jpg" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Ethnic Hakka people in a wedding in East Timor, 2006.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Japanese_Wedding_Day.jpg/120px-Japanese_Wedding_Day.jpg" border="0" height="80" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Japanese bride and groom, wearing white and black kimonos respectively. The Japanese bride-to-be is painted pure white from head to toe, visibly declaring her maiden status to the gods; a white hood is attached to her kimono, which the bride wears like a veil to hide her 'horns of jealousy' from the groom's mother, who will now become the head of the family.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/Whitweddingcake.jpg/89px-Whitweddingcake.jpg" border="0" height="119" width="89" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A wedding cake.</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/30/CIMG6034.JPG/120px-CIMG6034.JPG" border="0" height="90" width="120" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Two decorated mustangs.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/08/Gaywedding4.jpg/100px-Gaywedding4.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="100" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Two grooms at their same-sex wedding in Wellington, New Zealand.</p> </div> </div> </td> <td> <div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"> <div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"> <div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8b/Bride-boquet-toss.jpg/80px-Bride-boquet-toss.jpg" border="0" height="120" width="80" /></span></div> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A new bride tossing her flower bouquet over her shoulder.</p> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"><br /></span><span class="mw-headline"></span></h2> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><span class="image"><br /></span></span></div><br /></div><p><a name="Wedding_traditions_2" id="Wedding_traditions_2"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding traditions</span></h3> <ul><li><span class="mw-redirect">Wedding band (or ring)</span></li><li>Wedding invitation</li><li>Participants in wedding ceremonies</li><li>Shotgun wedding</li><li><span class="new">Tying the Knot</span></li></ul> <p><a name="Ceremony_aspects" id="Ceremony_aspects"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Ceremony aspects</span></h3> <ul><li>Wedding cake</li><li>Wedding videography</li><li>Wedding photography</li><li>Personal wedding websites</li></ul> <p><a name="Related_travel" id="Related_travel"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Related travel</span></h3> <ul><li>Honeymoon</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Wedding trip</span> (traveling to meet a bride or groom in an arranged marriage)</li><li><span class="new">Las Vegas wedding</span></li></ul> <p><a name="Religious_aspects" id="Religious_aspects"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Religious aspects</span></h3> <ul><li>Chastity</li><li>Celibacy</li><li>Spiritual marriage</li><li>Traditional marriage movement</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Major world religions</span></li></ul> <p><a name="Related_events_and_social_processes" id="Related_events_and_social_processes"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Related events and social processes</span></h3> <ul><li>Bachelor party</li><li>Banns of marriage</li><li>Betrothal</li><li>Bridal shower</li><li>Bride price</li><li>Brideservice</li><li>Dowry</li><li>Dower</li><li>Handfasting</li><li>Mayian</li><li>Prenuptial agreement</li><li>Wedding anniversary</li><li>Pakistani wedding</li><li>Shaadi</li></ul>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-51084662198101107212008-03-28T13:15:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:17:14.464-07:00Marriageable age<h1 class="firstHeading">Marriageable age</h1><br /><div class="notice plainlinks"><i><br /></i></div> <p>This is an incomplete list of <b>ages at which people are allowed to marry</b> in various countries. This list is current, and does not treat the topic in history.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul style="color: rgb(255, 102, 102);"><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Americas</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Asia</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Europe</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Oceania</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Africa" id="Africa"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Africa</span></h2> <ul><li>Algeria 21 for males and 18 for females, scope for judicial discretion if necessity or benefit is established for marriage below that age.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup></li><li>Egypt: 18 for males and 16 for females (lunar calendar).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup></li><li>Ethiopia: Legally 18 for both males and females. In practice, however, children in rural areas are married young. It is not uncommon to see girls as young as 6 years of age being married. It is also unusual for a girl to be 16 and yet unmarried.</li><li>Kenya: 16 for statutory marriages under the Marriage Act.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup></li><li>Libya: 20 years for men and women; judicial discretion for marriages below that age on grounds of benefit or necessity and with wali's agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup></li><li>Madagascar: 17 for males, 14 for females.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup></li><li>Morocco: 18 years for both males and females (since the legal reform of 2004). <sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference">[6]</sup></li><li>Senegal: 20 for males and females.</li><li>Somalia: 18 years for both parties; female party may marry at 16 with guardian's consent; Court may grant exemption from minimum age requirements in case of necessity.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference">[7]</sup></li><li>South Africa: 18, or 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference">[8]</sup> There are provisions made for respecting the marriage laws of traditional marriages, whereby a person might be married as young as 12 for females and 14 for males.</li><li>Sudan: Puberty, with requirement for willing consent of both parties.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference">[9]</sup></li><li>Tanzania: 18 for males and 15 for females; courts may permit underage marriage of parties who have reached 14 years of age if specific circumstances make marriage appear desirable; Penal Code provides that persons of "African or Asiatic descent" may marry or permit marriage of girl under 12 years of age in accordance with their custom or religion if marriage is not intended to be consummated before she attains 12 years.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference">[10]</sup></li><li>Tunisia: 20 for males and 17 for females; marriage below these ages require special permission from the court, which may be given only for pressing reasons and on the basis of a clear interest for both spouses. .<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference">[11]</sup></li></ul> <p><a name="Americas" id="Americas"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Americas</span></h2> <ul><li>Argentina: 21 generally; with parental consent is 16 for females, 18 for males. Under these ages only exceptional cases with judicial consent (<i>See Articles 166, 167 and 168 - <span class="external text">Marriage Section</span> of the Argentine Civil Code</i>).</li><li>Brazil: 18 generally; 16 with parental consent; unlimited in case of pregnancy. Since 2003 marital status is granted by law to adolescents (legally defined as individuals from 12 to 17) living together to someone else, with family approval (article 1513 of the 2003 Civil Code).</li><li>Canada: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent, 14 with judicial consent.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since September 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></li><li>Chile: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>Mexico: 18 for males and females. 16 years old for both only with parental or legal consent.</li><li>Paraguay: 14 for females and 16 for males. Article 39, clause "b", of the <span class="external text">Paraguayan Civil Code</span> reads: <i>“The legal incapacity of minors will cease: ...(b) for gentlemen of 16 and for women of 14 years completed, through marriage, with the limitations established in this Code”</i>.</li><li>Peru: 18 for all</li><li>United States: Usually 18. Most states, however, allow marriage at a younger age with parental and/or judicial consent. Some states allow marriage at a still younger age if the female is pregnant. <ul><li>Alabama: 18, 16 with parental consent <span class="external text">(statute)</span>.</li><li>Alaska: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference">[12]</sup></li><li>Arizona: no statutory minimum, those under 18 must have parental consent, those under 16 must receive approval of a superior court judge and parental consent. <span class="external text">(statute)</span></li><li>Arkansas: 18, 16 for females and 17 for males with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference">[13]</sup></li><li>California: no statutory minimum, those under 18 must receive approval of a superior court judge and parental consent.</li><li>Colorado: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference">[14]</sup></li><li>Connecticut: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference">[15]</sup></li><li>District of Columbia: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference">[16]</sup></li><li>Delaware: 18, 16 for females with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference">[17]</sup></li><li>Florida: 18, 16 with parental consent<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference">[18]</sup></li><li>Georgia: 18 generally, 15 with parental consent, 16 without parental consent if pregnant<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference">[19]</sup></li><li>Hawaii: 18, 15 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference">[20]</sup></li><li>Idaho: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference">[21]</sup></li><li>Illinois: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference">[22]</sup></li><li>Indiana: 18, 17 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference">[23]</sup></li><li>Iowa: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference">[24]</sup></li><li>Kansas: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference">[25]</sup></li><li>Kentucky: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference">[26]</sup></li><li>Louisiana: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference">[27]</sup></li><li>Maine: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference">[28]</sup></li><li>Massachusetts: 18 generally for first marriage, 16 with parental and judicial consent <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference">[29]</sup>.</li><li>Maryland: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference">[30]</sup></li><li>Michigan: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent. 15 and under with parental consent and probate judge approval.</li><li>Minnesota: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference">[31]</sup></li><li>Mississippi: 21, 17 for males, 15 for females, with parental consent.</li><li>Missouri: 18, 15 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference">[32]</sup></li><li>Montana: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference">[33]</sup></li><li>Nebraska: 19, 17 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference">[34]</sup></li><li>Nevada: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference">[35]</sup></li><li>New Hampshire: 18 generally; 14 for males and 13 for females, in cases of "special cause" with parental consent and court permission.</li><li>New Jersey: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>New Mexico: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference">[36]</sup></li><li>New York: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent, 14 with parental and judicial consent.</li><li>North Carolina: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent, unlimited in case of pregnancy or birth of child with parental consent.</li><li>North Dakota: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference">[37]</sup></li><li>Ohio: 18 for males, 16 for females. Parental consent needed for minors.</li><li>Oklahoma: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference">[38]</sup></li><li>Oregon: 18 generally, 17 with parental consent. The consenting parent or guardian must accompany the applicant when applying for the marriage license. There is no waiver for anyone under the age of 17.</li><li>Pennsylvania: 18 generally, 16 with Birth Certificate and written consent of parent or guardian. Anyone under the age of 16 needs parental consent and the approval of a Judge of the Orphans Court. <span class="external text">(statute)</span></li><li>Puerto Rico: 21, 18 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference">[39]</sup></li><li>Rhode Island: 18, 16 for females with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference">[40]</sup></li><li>South Carolina: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference">[41]</sup></li><li>South Dakota: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference">[42]</sup></li><li>Tennessee: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference">[43]</sup></li><li>Texas: 18, 16 with parental consent. Possibly younger with judicial consent or if person under 18 had previously married and divorced.</li><li>Utah: 18 generally for first marriage, 16 with parental consent, 14 with court approval or previous marriage.</li><li>Vermont: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference">[44]</sup></li><li>Virginia: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference">[45]</sup></li><li>Washington: 18, 17 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference">[46]</sup> May be waived by superior court judge.<span class="external text">(statute)</span></li><li>West Virginia: 18<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference">[47]</sup></li><li>Wisconsin: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference">[48]</sup></li><li>Wyoming: 18, 16 with parental consent.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference">[49]</sup></li></ul> </li><li>Venezuela: 18 generally, 14 for females and 16 for males with parental consent.</li></ul> <p><a name="Asia" id="Asia"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Asia</span></h2> <ul><li>Afghanistan: 18 for males, 14 for females, although more than half of marriages involve females under 14. <sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference">[50]</sup></li><li>Armenia: 18 for males, 17 for females. <sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference">[51]</sup></li><li>Azerbaijan: 18 for males, 17 for females. 17 or 16 correspondingly in special cases. <sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference">[52]</sup></li><li>China (PRC): 22 for males, 20 for females.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference">[53]</sup></li><li>Hong Kong <span class="mw-redirect">SAR of China</span>: 21, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>Bangladesh: 21 for males and 18 for females, lunar calendar; penal sanctions for contracting under-age marriages, though such unions are not considered invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference">[54]</sup></li><li>Brunei: No minimum marriage age specified.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference">[55]</sup></li><li>India: 21 for males, 18 for females.</li><li>Indonesia: 18 for males, 16 for females.</li><li>Iran: 15 for males, 13 for females.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference">[56]</sup> (girls under 13 and boys under 15 may get married with their guardian consent and court ruling that it is in their interest, rarely ever done at the age of 13/15, in some cases in late 20s)</li><li>Iraq: 18 for men and women; judicial permission may be granted at 15 years if fitness, physical capacity and guardian's consent (or unreasonable objection on part of guardian) are established. (May or may not have been revised after Saddam Hussein's fall.)<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference">[57]</sup></li><li>Israel: 18 for males, 17 for females.</li><li>Kazakhstan: 18 years, in special cases 16 years with parental consent <sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference">[58]</sup></li><li>Kuwait: No minimum marriage age identified; capacity to marry requires parties to be of age (puberty) and of sound mind, however, no notarisation or registration of marriage permitted where female has not reached 15 years or male 17 years<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference">[59]</sup></li><li>Lebanon: 18 years for males and 17 for females; scope for judicial discretion on basis of physical maturity and wali's permission from 17 years for males and 9 for females; real puberty or 15/9 with judicial permission for Shi'a; 18/17 or 16/15 with judicial permission for Druze.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference">[60]</sup></li><li>Japan: 20 generally, 18 for males with parental consent, 16 for females with parental consent.</li><li>Jordan: 16 for males and 15 for females, lunar calendar; court permission required for females under 18 to marry men older by 20 years or more.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference">[61]</sup></li><li>Maldives: According to custom, the minimum age for marriage is 15; the Law on the Protection of the Rights of the Child discourages marriage before the age of 16<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference">[62]</sup></li><li>Pakistan: 18 for males, 16 for females.</li><li>Philippines: 21 for males, 18 for females, 16-21 with parental consent, 22-25 with Parental Advice (parents aware of couple's intent) <span class="external autonumber">[5]</span>.</li><li>Singapore: 21, 18 with parental consent, below 18 with special marriage license.</li><li>South Korea: 20 generally. 18 for males, 16 for females with parental consent.</li><li>Sri Lanka: In general, the minimum marriage age is 18; for Muslims, the rule is that a girl must be 12 years of age or have a Quazi's permission to marry before contracting into marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference">[63]</sup></li><li>Syria: 18 years for males and 17 for females; judicial discretion for males of 15 years and females of 13 years; judge may withhold permission for marriage if court finds incompatibility in age between betrothed parties.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference">[64]</sup></li><li>Taiwan (ROC): 20 generally. 18 for males, 16 for females with parental consent.</li><li>Thailand: 20, 15 with parental consent.</li><li>Uzbekistan 18 for males, 17 for females. 17 and 16 correspondingly in special conditions. <sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference">[65]</sup></li><li>Vietnam: 20 for males, 18 for females.</li><li>Yemen: 9 ("In 1999, the minimum marriage age of fifteen for women, rarely enforced, was abolished; the onset of puberty, interpreted to be at the age of nine, was set as a requirement for consummation of marriage."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference">[66]</sup>)</li></ul> <p><a name="Europe" id="Europe"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Europe</span></h2> <ul><li>Austria: 18, 16 with court consent (partner must be 18 or older).</li><li>Belgium: 18, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>Bulgaria: 18, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>Croatia: 18, 16 with parental consent.</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Czech republic</span>: 18, 16 for females in case of pregnacy (parental consent required).</li><li>Denmark: 18 generally, one can marry at 16 with special letter of approval from the Queen and parental consent.</li><li>Estonia: 18, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>Finland: 18 generally, under 18 with the consent of the ministry of justice in extraordinary circumstances, in which case parents or other guardian must be heard, but actual parental consent is not required.</li><li>France: 18 for males and females, without exceptions. (The 2005 law intends to protect minors from arranged childhood marriages).</li><li>Germany: 18 generally, 16 with court consent (partner must be 18 or older).</li><li>Hungary: 18, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>Republic of Ireland: 18, 16 with parental consent, below 16 with both parental and High Court consent.</li><li>Italy: 18 generally, 16 with court consent.</li><li>Lithuania: 18, 16 with court permission.</li><li>Netherlands: 18 generally, 16 with parental consent and permission from the Queen.</li><li>Norway: 18 generally, younger with consent from parents (guardian) and permission from the County Governor. The County Governor may only give permission when there are 'special reasons for contracting a marriage'. <span class="external autonumber">[6]</span><span class="external autonumber">[7]</span></li><li>Poland: 18, 16 for females with court consent</li><li>Portugal: 18, 16 with parental consent (if not possible, the court can provide the consent).</li><li>Romania: 18 without exceptions <span class="external autonumber">[8]</span></li><li>Russia: 18 generally, 16 or 14 with consent of a parent or guardian (depends on region), unlimited under special circumstances.</li><li>Slovakia: 18, 16 with court consent.</li><li>Spain: 18, 16 with parental consent</li><li>Sweden: 18 generally, underage may marry with permission from the county administrative board. The county administrative board may only give permission when there are 'special reasons' but although the custodians of the underage should be heard if possible, the consent of the custodians is not required. <span class="external text">The Swedish Matrimonial Code (SFS 1987:230), 2006-05-13</span></li><li>Switzerland: 18</li><li>Turkey: 18, 17 with parental consent, 16 under special circumstances with court approval.</li><li>Ukraine: 18 for males, 17 for females, 16 with parental consent.</li><li>United Kingdom<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference">[67]</sup> <ul><li>England: 18, 16 with parental consent</li><li>Scotland: 16</li><li>Northern Ireland: 18, 16 with parental consent</li><li>Jersey: 18, 16 with parental consent</li><li>Wales: 18, 16 with parental consent</li></ul> </li></ul> <p><a name="Oceania" id="Oceania"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Oceania</span></h2> <ul><li>Australia: 18, 16 with permission from a court and both parents (very rarely given).</li><li>New Zealand: 18, 16 with parental consent.</li></ul>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-17017057919277131102008-03-28T13:06:00.001-07:002008-03-28T13:07:29.530-07:00Omiai<h1 class="firstHeading">Omiai</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Omiai</b> (<b>お見合い,</b> literally "looking at each other") or <b>miai</b> (the "o" is honorific) is a Japanese custom whereby unattached individuals are introduced to each other to consider the possibility of marriage. In China, this custom is called <span class="new">xiangqin</span> (相親, literally "mutual familiarity").</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Participants</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Nakōdo</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Selection Process</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Investigation</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Miai</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Kotowari (Excuse, Apology, Refusal)</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Discrimination</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Attitudes</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Gender and Omiai</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="History" id="History"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>In 16th century Japan the practice of Omiai emerged among the Samurai class to form and protect strong military alliances among warlords to ensure mutual support. Later, during the <span class="mw-redirect">Tokugawa Period</span> (1603-1868) the practice of Omiai spread to other urban classes trying to emulate Samurai customs. After the Pacific War, the trend was to abandon this restrictive arranged-marriage system, in favor of more Western ideals of love marriages (ren’ai). <sup id="cite_ref-prof_house_0-0" class="reference">[1]</sup> Currently, it is estimated that only between ten and thirty percent of marriages in Japan are arranged. <sup id="cite_ref-prof_house_0-1" class="reference">[1]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-about_gm_1-0" class="reference">[2]</sup></p> <p><a name="Participants" id="Participants"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Participants</span></h2> <p>The participants in the Miai process include the candidates who are to potentially be married and the families of these candidates. The candidates and their families are judged on a large set of criteria aimed at determining the suitability and the balance of the marriage. This criteria is formally known in Japan as iegara (いえがら). This includes level of education, income, occupation, physical attractiveness, religion, social standing, and hobbies. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-0" class="reference">[3]</sup> Many modern women are stereotyped as looking for three attributes: height, high salary, and high education. This is commonly known as “The Three H” syndrome. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-1" class="reference">[3]</sup> The participant’s bloodline, or ketto (けっとう), also plays a large role. Many fear that a candidate’s blood is contaminated with diseases such as epilepsy, neurosis, or mental illness. The fear is so prevalent that the Eugenic Protection Law of 1948 was passed in order to legalize sterilization and abortion for people with a history of mental defects and other hereditary diseases. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-2" class="reference">[3]</sup> Social status also plays a large role in selecting a candidate. Ideally, paired candidates and their families should be of equal social status. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-3" class="reference">[3]</sup> A candidate will have a hard time finding a mate if his family is not of a matching social status as the other family – even if the candidate is of equal social status. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-4" class="reference">[3]</sup> Family lineage can also affect the quality of a candidate. For example, a candidate with samurai blood is more likely to be picked than one with ancestry from a different Tokugawa-era class. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-5" class="reference">[3]</sup></p> <p><a name="Nak.C5.8Ddo" id="Nak.C5.8Ddo"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Nakōdo</span></h2> <p>A nakōdo (仲人) serves the role of a go-between between families in the Miai process. Traditionally the nakōdo is a family member or friend who is very in touch with the community and who knows many eligible candidates that might match the inquiring candidate’s needs. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-6" class="reference">[3]</sup> Professional organizations have also begun to provide go-between services for inquiring candidates. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-7" class="reference">[3]</sup> These professional nakōdo are known as Pro Nakōdo. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-8" class="reference">[3]</sup> The general purpose of the nakōdo is to provide introductions for people entering a new arrangement situation and to assist shy candidates. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-0" class="reference">[4]</sup> The nakōdo is expected to play a variety of roles throughout the miai process. The first is the bridging role, hashikake (はしかけ), in which the nakōdo introduces potential candidates and families to each other. The second role is as a liaison for the two families. This role helps to avoid direct confrontation and differences in opinions between the families by serving as an intermediary for working out the details of the marriage. The third role is that of a guarantor who will help to mediate the couple in the case of marital disputes or to arrange a divorce in more serious situations. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-1" class="reference">[4]</sup> In return for serving and assisting the participants, sometimes the nakōdo will be given a percentage (10%) of the wedding preparation money that the groom gives the bride. <sup id="cite_ref-about_gm_1-1" class="reference">[2]</sup> Even though Omiai marriages are not as common as they once were, they still hold a place in popular media. One example is “Wedding Bells”, a game show that substitutes for the role of the nakōdo in which contestants are introduced and screened for marriage possibility.</p> <p><a name="Selection_Process" id="Selection_Process"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Selection Process</span></h2> <p>The initiative for the Omiai introductions often comes from the parents who may feel that their son or daughter is of a marriageable age, (tekireiki) usually in the range of 22 to 30, but has shown little or no sign of seeking a partner on their own. Other times, the individual may ask friends or acquaintances to introduce potential mates in a similar way. Parents will often subtly interject the phrase, “Onegai Shimasu” (“I make the request”) into casual conversation, <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-2" class="reference">[4]</sup> which implies that both parents have authorized consent for their daughter to meet eligible men. <sup id="cite_ref-lebra_4-0" class="reference">[5]</sup> The daughter may be unaware that her parents have suggested her availability though the use of Onegai Shimasu. <sup id="cite_ref-lebra_4-1" class="reference">[5]</sup> Moreover, some parents will also send a candidacy picture to a future husband or go-between without their daughter’s knowledge or consent. <sup id="cite_ref-lebra_4-2" class="reference">[5]</sup> Parents may also enlist the aid of a nakōdo or ask a third party with a wide range of social contacts to act as a go-between. The word Omiai is used to describe both the entire process as well as the first meeting between the couple and the nakōdo. Omiai signifies that the parties were brought together expressly for the purpose of marriage on the initiative of the parents, a friend of the family or a go- between. It also means that the initial criteria of selection were objective ones. <sup id="cite_ref-dore_5-0" class="reference">[6]</sup> The potential mate and their family will meet with the nakōdo and examine all eligible persons. The nakōdo will often possess photographs of candidates and a “rirekisho”, a small personal history. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-3" class="reference">[4]</sup> The rirekisho frequently includes the name, age, health, education, occupation and marital status of all members of the candidate’s family. The families will then sit down with the nakōdo and screen the portfolios to eliminate any obviously inappropriate cases. <sup id="cite_ref-blood_6-0" class="reference">[7]</sup> Both the photographs and “rirekisho” may also be brought to the home of the potential mate’s family for the son or daughter to scrutinize. <sup id="cite_ref-edwards_7-0" class="reference">[8]</sup> The participant and their family will examine the photos and short personal histories based on an investigation of social consideration. The educational level and occupations of the potential candidate’s family are the first aspects taken into consideration at this meeting. <sup id="cite_ref-edwards_7-1" class="reference">[8]</sup> The potential mate and their mother will create a list of primary choices and ask the nakōdo to investigate the first choice. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-9" class="reference">[3]</sup></p> <p><a name="Investigation" id="Investigation"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Investigation</span></h2> <p>The nakōdo will provide a substantial amount of information regarding each candidate. The family will research the iegara, of each candidate provided by the nakōdo once the preliminary list is constructed. Vast differences in iegara between the two families would cause embarrassment to both sides whenever they meet. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-10" class="reference">[3]</sup> One method of investigation in urban Japan is through a Kooshinjo, or detective agency. In rural areas a common investigative method is to personally ask about the family of interest by questioning shopkeepers and neighbors, Kuchikiki (“inquiry of mouth”). <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-4" class="reference">[4]</sup> More recently, the nakōdo will gather information about the family in question by both asking around and comparing responses, Kikiaweseru/ toriawaseru (“inquire variously and compare”). If all criteria are acceptable, the matchmaker will arrange an interview for a miai. <sup id="cite_ref-dore_5-1" class="reference">[6]</sup></p> <p><a name="Miai" id="Miai"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Miai</span></h2> <p>Before the miai occurs, both parties will scrutinize each other’s pictures to prevent future rejection. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry2_8-0" class="reference">[9]</sup> Although candidates rely on their photographs and resumes (rirekisho) in the modern miai process, an older custom known as ‘kagemi” (hidden look) was once employed. Kagemi occurred when a potential male candidate attempted to catch a glimpse of the girl in secret. The objective of the kagemi was to prevent embarrassing denials based on appearances. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-5" class="reference">[4]</sup> The miai itself is a casual meeting between the potential couple, the nakōdo, and the parents of both parties. The nakōdo will determine the place and format of the meeting. The miai is just as much an opportunity for parents to survey the bride/groom as the couple themselves. The meeting begins with an informal introduction between the two families by the nakōdo. The introduction is often followed by small talk between the parents. Occasionally, the conversation will shift to one of the potential candidates. Towards the end of the meeting, the potential couple will be advised to go off spend some time alone to get better acquainted with each other.</p> <p><a name="Kotowari_.28Excuse.2C_Apology.2C_Refusal.29" id="Kotowari_.28Excuse.2C_Apology.2C_Refusal.29"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Kotowari (Excuse, Apology, Refusal)</span></h2> <p>If the initial miai introduction is successful, the potential couple will go through a series of dates, “odeto” until a decision is reached. The decision is usually expressed at the couple’s third meeting. If the potential couple chooses to marry one another, they will go through a formal marriage process known as Miai-gekkon <sup id="cite_ref-ref7_9-0" class="reference">[10]</sup>, in which a “Yui-no”, or betrothal ceremony, will be arranged by the groom’s family. <sup id="cite_ref-lebra_4-3" class="reference">[5]</sup> Contrastingly, there are standard provisions to turn down an offer or proposal with relatively little loss of face on the part of the party refused. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-6" class="reference">[4]</sup></p> <p><a name="Discrimination" id="Discrimination"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Discrimination</span></h2> <p>There is some amount of racial, class, and genetic discrimination apparent in the Miai process. Many Japan-born Koreans are immediately discriminated against for being “half-bloods” – not of full Japanese ancestry <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-11" class="reference">[3]</sup>. Also, women born on the year of the horse in the fifth cycle of the Japanese lunar calendar, “hinoeuma” – every sixtieth year, are thought to be bad luck. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-12" class="reference">[3]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-japanese_calendar_10-0" class="reference">[11]</sup> Women born during this year will often claim to have been born in the previous or following year. The belief is so widespread that in 1966, according to the Japanese Statistical Yearbook, the birthrate in Japan actually took a dip. <sup id="cite_ref-edwards_7-2" class="reference">[8]</sup> The most widespread class discriminate is against members of the burakumin (部落民). This former outcaste group is composed of workers traditionally associated with trades involving blood, death, or other undesirables. Some examples are leather-workers, shoe-menders, and butchers since shoes are too dirty to be taken into the house and meat was in the past forbidden by the Buddhist faith. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-13" class="reference">[3]</sup> In the era of the Tokugawa Shogunate demotion to the status of a burakumin was sometimes a way of punishment for criminals. <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference">[12]</sup> Today, burakumin members may be identified by the region of the city in which they live or by their street address. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-14" class="reference">[3]</sup> Often, a nakōdo will require a candidate to bring a family history in order to prove that they are not in fact a member of the burakumin. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-7" class="reference">[4]</sup> There are also other subcultures which are discriminated against in the Miai process. Members of the Ainu, an indigenous people from the <span class="mw-redirect">Hokkaido</span> region are commonly avoided as well. Recently, descendants of people who were exposed to the radiation from the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki are also avoided due to stories of possible child deformities and susceptibilities to rare diseases. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-8" class="reference">[4]</sup></p> <p><a name="Attitudes" id="Attitudes"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Attitudes</span></h2> <p>Modern attitudes toward miai have changed significantly. Only ten to thirty per cent of all marriages taking place in Japan at present are arranged marriages. <sup id="cite_ref-edwards_7-3" class="reference">[8]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ref7_9-1" class="reference">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-about_gm_1-2" class="reference">[2]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ty_knot_12-0" class="reference">[13]</sup> The younger generation is more apt to adopting the Western philosophy of love where marriage is often preceded by romantic courtship. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-15" class="reference">[3]</sup> Romantic love, or ren’ai implies that there are no constraints against selecting individuals with whom one can marry. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-16" class="reference">[3]</sup> However, it is not always possible to classify a particular marriage as “love” or “arranged” because of parental influence on the candidates. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry2_8-1" class="reference">[9]</sup> Women are more inclined to seek a romantic relationship than men. Gender enculturation is often seen as the cause for the discrepancy. Women are raised with the expectation that they may only find satisfaction within the home and are therefore perhaps more susceptible to modern brands of idealism, such as that true love will be followed by marital and domestic bliss. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-17" class="reference">[3]</sup> There are several methods for meeting potential mates that differ from the structure of the Omiai. For example, Konpa or Compa (companion) is a method young people have adopted into modern society. <sup id="cite_ref-things_japanese_13-0" class="reference">[14]</sup> Konpa occurs when groups of four or five boys go out together with the same number of girls to see how they all get along. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry_3-9" class="reference">[4]</sup> This particular method has become more popular since it is highly informal and does not involve parents. <sup id="cite_ref-things_japanese_13-1" class="reference">[14]</sup></p> <p><a name="Gender_and_Omiai" id="Gender_and_Omiai"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Gender and Omiai</span></h2> <p>Although current rates of Omiai marriages are fairly low, encompassing only about twenty-five to thirty percent of all marriages, the persistence of Omiai in modern Japanese society can be explained by examining gender relationships. As discussed earlier, people that are past marriageable age, tekireiki are more likely to utilize the Omiai process. The idea of the cutoff age is still taken quite seriously. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry2_8-2" class="reference">[9]</sup> Women who remain unmarried past tekireiki are treated as inferior and compared to Christmas cake (kurisumasu keeki) fresh up until the twenty-fifth but on each succeeding day the cake becomes less appetizing and edible. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-18" class="reference">[3]</sup> A newer expression replaces Christmas cake with toshikoshisoba, or a dish of noodles drunk to see out the year on the thirty-first. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry2_8-3" class="reference">[9]</sup></p> Males seem to possess only a bit more latitude. A man who does not marry by about 30 is considered untrustworthy by colleagues and employers, who believe that such men have not been conditioned to learn the fundamental principles of co-operation and responsibility. <sup id="cite_ref-kalman_2-19" class="reference">[3]</sup> For males, marriage also makes an implicit statement about staying in the family business. <sup id="cite_ref-hendry2_8-4" class="reference">[9]</sup> Males that engage in Omiai often occupy dominant roles within the marriage. <sup id="cite_ref-blood_6-1" class="reference">[7]</sup> Omiai marriage has been criticized for promoting patriarchal relationships with traditional power structures and distinct divisions of labor between males and females. <sup id="cite_ref-blood_6-2" class="reference">[7]</sup> While males are seen as the dominant providers, women are seen as symbols of cultural refinement through their participation in ceremonies such as flower arranging and tea ceremony.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-76915124345297631222008-03-28T13:04:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:05:25.440-07:00Marriage in Hinduism<h1 class="firstHeading">Marriage in Hinduism</h1><!-- start content --> <table class="infobox" style="clear: right; width: 14em; float: right; text-align: center; font-size: 85%;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background: rgb(255, 197, 105) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; padding-bottom: 0.3em;"> <p>Part of a series on<br /><span style="font-size: 175%;"><b>Hinduism</b></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.75em 0pt 0.15em;"><span class="image"><img alt="Aum" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Om.svg/80px-Om.svg.png" border="0" height="82" width="80" /></span></td> </tr> <tr> <th> <p>History<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Deities<br />Denominations<br />Literature</p> </th> </tr> <tr> <td> <div style="background: rgb(255, 197, 105) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><b>Beliefs and practices</b></div> <p>Dharma<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Artha<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Kama<br />Moksha<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Karma<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Samsara<br />Yoga<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Bhakti<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Maya<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Puja<br /><span class="mw-redirect">Mandir</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div style="background: rgb(255, 197, 105) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><b><span class="mw-redirect">Scriptures</span></b></div> <p>Vedas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> <span class="mw-redirect">Upanishads</span><br />Ramayana<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> <span class="mw-redirect">Mahabharata</span><br />Bhagavad Gita<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> <span class="mw-redirect">Purana</span><br /><i>others</i></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <div style="background: rgb(255, 197, 105) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><b>Related topics</b></div> <p>Hinduism by country<br />Gurus and saints<br />Reforms<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Ayurveda<br />Calendar<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Criticism<br />Festivals<span style="font-weight: bold;"> ·</span> Glossary<br /><span class="mw-redirect">Jyotisha</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><span class="image"><img alt="Hindu swastika" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/50px-HinduSwastika.svg.png" border="0" height="51" width="50" /></span></p> <div class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: transparent; white-space: nowrap; font-weight: normal; font-size: xx-small;">This box: <span title="View this template" style="">view</span> <span style="font-size: 80%;">•</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184);" title="Discussion about this template">talk</span> <span style="font-size: 80%;">•</span> <span class="external text"><span style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184);" title="You can edit this template. Please use the preview button before saving.">edit</span></span></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>A <b>Hindu marriage</b> joins two individuals for life, so that they can pursue dharma, artha (possessions) and kama (physical desires) together. It also joins two families. The colours are normally red and gold.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Arranging the marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">The wedding</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of Hindu marriage and rituals</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Symbolic rituals worn by married Hindu women</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Modernity</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Arranging_the_marriage" id="Arranging_the_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Arranging the marriage</span></h2> <p>Traditionally, Hindu parents look for a prospective match for their son/daughter from their own community also known as <i>arranged</i> marriage. Elders in the family and parents seek the prospective match through word of mouth within the community. The use of <i>jathakam</i> (astrological chart at the time of birth) of the son/daughter to match with the help of a priest is common, but not universal. Parents also take advice from the brahmin called 'panthulu' in Telugu who has details of many people looking to get married. Some communities, like the Brahmins in Mithila, use genealogical records ("Panjikas") maintained by the specialists.</p> <p><i>Jathakam</i> is drawn based on the placement of the stars and planets at the time of birth. The maximum points for any match can be 36 and the minimum points for matching is 18. Any match with points under 18 is not considered as an auspicious match for a harmonial relationship. If the astrological chart of the two individuals (male and female) achieve the required threshold in points then further talks are considered for prospective marriage. Also the man and woman are given chance to talk and understand each other in the duration anywhere from 15 minutes to one hour. Once there is an agreement then an auspicious time is chosen for the wedding to take place.</p> <p><a name="The_wedding" id="The_wedding"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">The wedding</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Hindu wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Wedding ceremonies can be expensive, and costs are typically borne by the parents. It's not uncommon for middle-or upper-class weddings to have a guest list of over 500 people. A live instrumental band is played in some parts where as some marriages have baratis (the bridegroom's family) dancing to music just before coming to the wedding venue. Vedic rituals are performed and the family and friends then bless the couple. Food is served to all the invitees with lots of delicacies. The wedding celebrations can take up to one week depending on the practice in that different parts of India.</p> <p><a name="Types_of_Hindu_marriage_and_rituals" id="Types_of_Hindu_marriage_and_rituals"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Types of Hindu marriage and rituals</span></h3> <p>Historically the so called <b>vedic marriage</b> was but one of the few different types of Hindu marriage customs. Love marriage was also seen in historical Hindu literature and has been variously described in many names: eg <b>Gandharva vivaha</b> etc. In certain poor vaishnav communities still there is a custom called <b>kanthi-badal</b> which is exchange of bead-garlands as a very simplified form of ritual in solitude in front of an idol of Krishna, considered a form of acceptable love marriage.</p> <p>Elopement has also been described in old Hindu literature. Lord Krishna himself Eloped Rukmini on horse chariot. It is written that Rukmini's father was going to marry her to Shishupal, against her wishes. Rukimini sent a letter to Krishna informing of a place and time to pick her up.</p> <p><a name="Symbolic_rituals_worn_by_married_Hindu_women" id="Symbolic_rituals_worn_by_married_Hindu_women"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Symbolic rituals worn by married Hindu women</span></h3> <p>The married Hindu women in different parts of India follow different customs. In some places, in especially eastern India, they put on vermilion on the hair parting, wear a pair of conch bangles (shankha), a pair of red bangles(pala) and an iron bangle on the left hand (loha) while their husband is alive. In Tamil Nadu, a married woman is required to wear a necklace with a distinctive pendant called a thali and silver toerings. Both are put on her by the husband during the wedding ceremony. The pendant on the thali is custom-made and it's design is different from family to family. Apart from this, the married woman also wears a red vermilion dot on her forehead called a Kunguma pottu and (whenever possible) flowers in her hair and colured glass bangles. The married woman should give up all of these when her husband dies.</p> <p><a name="Modernity" id="Modernity"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Modernity</span></h2> <p>Many people believe that arranged marriage is the traditional form of marriage in India and that love marriage is a modern form that is currently becoming more and more acceptable. Love marriage differs from an "arranged marriage" in that the couple, rather than the parents, choose their own partner. However, there are various instances from ancient scriptures of Hinduism, namely Ramayana and Mahabhagavatham (life of Lord Krishna), Mahabaratha, etc., of the romantic love marriages that were also acceptable form of marriage even in ancient times. Examples: the wedding of King Dashratha and Kaushalya, the wedding of Krishna and Princess Rukmini, the wedding of King Shanthanu and the boatman's daughter Sathyavathi... in all these weddings, there were no considerations of caste, creed, wealth, position, etc., but only the love of the two people getting married. Somewhere in the course of time, arranged marriages had become predominant and love marriages became unacceptable by the society. Nowadays, "love marriages" are being accepted again.</p> <p>In practice, arranged marriages usually involve the consent of the boy and the girl. Love marriages usually involve consent (sometimes grudging) of the parents.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-30288983492294577162008-03-28T13:02:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:03:03.920-07:00Bride price<h1 class="firstHeading">Bride price</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><span class="plainlinks"></span><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="border: 1px solid rgb(190, 190, 190); float: right; margin-left: 0.5em; width: 180px;" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: center; line-height: 95%; background-color: rgb(212, 221, 233);"><b>Close relationships</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td style=""> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5f/KarenWhimseyValentineMain.png/90px-KarenWhimseyValentineMain.png" border="0" height="51" width="90" /></span></span></div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0px; background-color: rgb(244, 251, 255); text-align: center;"> <p><small><span style="white-space: nowrap;">Affinity •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Attachment •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Bonding •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Casual •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Cohabitation •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Compersion •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Concubinage •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Courtship •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Divorce •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Dower, dowry, and <strong class="selflink">bride price</strong> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Family •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Friendship •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Husband •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Infatuation •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Intimacy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Jealousy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Limerence •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Love •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Marriage •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Monogamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Nonmonogamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Office romance •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-redirect">Partner</span> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Passion •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Pederasty •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Platonic love •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Polyamory •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Polyfidelity •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Polygamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Psychology of monogamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Relationship abuse •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Romance •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Separation •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Sexuality •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Wedding •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Widowhood •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Wife</span></small> <span class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" style="white-space: nowrap; font-weight: normal; font-size: xx-small;">This box: <span title="View this template" style="">view</span> <span style="font-size: 80%;">•</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184);" title="Discussion about this template">talk</span> <span style="font-size: 80%;">•</span> <span class="external text"><span style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184);" title="You can edit this template. Please use the preview button before saving.">edit</span></span></span> </p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Bride price</b> also known as <b>bride wealth</b> is an amount of money or property or wealth paid to the parents of a woman for the right to marry their daughter. (<i>Compare</i> dowry, which is paid to the groom, or used by the bride to help establish the new household, and dower, which is property settled on the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage.) In the anthropological literature bride price has often been explained in market terms, as payment made in exchange for the bride's family's loss of her labor and fertility within her kin group. Compare this <span class="mw-redirect">affinal</span> practice with brideservice, which does not rely on a compensatory exchange idiom for ethnological interpretation.</p> <p>The same culture may simultaneously practice both dowry and bride price.</p> <p>Many cultures practiced bride price prior to any existing records.</p> <p><a name="History_of_the_tradition" id="History_of_the_tradition"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">History of the tradition</span></h2> <p>The Code of Hammurabi mentions bride price in various laws, as an established custom. It is not the paying of the bride price that is prescribed, but the regulation of various aspects:</p> <ul><li>a man who paid the bride price but looked for another bride would not get a refund, but he would if the father of the bride refused the match.</li><li>if a wife died without sons, her father was entitled to the return of her dowry, minus the value of the bride price.</li></ul> <p>The Hebrew Bible and Talmud mention the practice of paying a bride price to the father of a minor girl.</p> <p>The practice of the bride price is found in the Bible, in the Old Testament. <span class="external text">Exodus 22:15-16</span> says: <i>"And if a man entice a virgin that is not betrothed, and lie with her, he shall surely pay a dowry for her to be his wife. If her father utterly refuse to give her unto him, he shall pay money according to the dowry of virgins."</i> JPS 1917 <span class="external autonumber">[1]</span></p> <p><i>"If a man seduces a virgin who is not pledged to be married and sleeps with her, he must pay the bride-price, and she shall be his wife. If her father absolutely refuses to give her to him, he must still pay the bride-price for virgins."</i> <span class="mw-redirect">NIV</span></p> <p><i>And if a man entice a maid that is not betrothed, and lie with her, he shall surely endow her to be his wife. If her father utterly refuse to give her unto him, he shall pay money according to the dowry of virgins.</i> <span class="mw-redirect">KJV</span></p> <p>Deuteronomy 22:28-29 states similarly: <i>"If a man find a damsel that is a virgin, which is not betrothed, and lay hold on her, and lie with her, and they be found; then the man that lay with her shall give unto the damsel's father fifty shekels of silver, and she shall be his wife; because he hath humbled her, he may not put her away all his days."</i> KJV</p> <p>The Greeks practiced bride price in archaic times, and in the <i>Odyssey</i>, Telemachus complains of the suitors wooing his mother Penelope</p> <blockquote> <p>They are too craven to go to the house of her father Icarius, that he may himself set the bride-price for his daughter, and bestow her on whom he will, even on him who finds favour in his sight.</p> </blockquote> <p>and the custom lasts into classical times, by which time it had become a token sum of less value than the bride's dowry.</p> <p>In Islamic marriage laws, Mahr is paid (or promised to be paid in case of divorce) by the groom to the bride (as opposed to the bride's father). It is mandatory.</p> <p>The tradition of giving bride price is still practiced in many Asian countries although the amount changing hands is more a token amount to continue the traditional ritual then an actual price-tag attached to the bride-to-be for marriage.</p> <p>In traditional <span class="mw-redirect">Chinese culture</span>, an auspicious date is selected to <i>Ti Qin</i> (literally meaning "propose marriage"), where both families will meet to discuss the amount of the bride price demanded, among other things. A couple of weeks before the actual wedding, the ritual of <i>Guo Da Li</i> (literally meaning "performing the rites") takes place (on an auspicious date of course). The groom and a matchmaker will visit the bride's family bearing gifts like wedding cakes, sweetmeats and jewelry as well as the bride price. On the actual wedding day, the bride's family will return a portion of the bride price (sometimes in the form of dowry) as a goodwill gesture.</p> <p>The practice of bride price also existed in India, where it was considered as a social evil and the subject of a movement to eradicate it in the early 20th Century. Unlike what happened in the case of dowry, this movement was largely successful, although it has been making a comeback in recent years due to an increasing shortage of women.</p> <p>In parts of Africa the validity of a traditional marriage ceremony depends on the payment of a bride price, which can vary from a token amount to an exorbitant sum. <b><span class="mw-redirect">Lobola</span></b> is a similar tradition in southern Africa.</p> <p>This practice contrasts sharply with the poorly understood nuptial arrangement known as brideservice, which is noted in other regions of the world, such as among Native <span class="mw-redirect">Amazonian</span> Peoples, like the Urarina of Peru.</p> <p><a name="The_tradition_in_art" id="The_tradition_in_art"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">The tradition in art</span></h2> <ul><li>A famous Telugu play "Kanyasulkam" (Bride Price) satirised the practice and the brahminical notions that kept it alive. Though the practice no longer exists in India, the play, and the movie based on it, are still extremely popular in Andhra Pradesh.</li><li>A popular Mormon story, Johnny Lingo uses a bride price of a shocking amount in one of its most pivotal scenes.</li><li>A novel named "The Bride Price", by Buchi Emecheta.</li></ul>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-57692984177697345392008-03-28T13:00:00.000-07:002008-03-28T13:01:12.023-07:00Stockholm syndrome<h1 class="firstHeading">Stockholm syndrome</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="dablink">For other uses, see Stockholm syndrome (disambiguation).</div> <p><b>Stockholm syndrome</b> is a psychological response sometimes seen in an abducted hostage, in which the hostage shows signs of loyalty to the hostage-taker, regardless of the danger (or at least risk) in which the hostage has been placed. Stockholm syndrome is also sometimes discussed in reference to other situations with similar tensions, such as battered person syndrome, rape cases, <span class="mw-redirect">child abuse cases</span> and bride kidnapping. The syndrome is named after the Norrmalmstorg robbery of <i>Kreditbanken</i> at Norrmalmstorg, Stockholm, Sweden, in which the bank robbers held bank employees hostage from August 23 to August 28 in 1973. In this case, the victims became emotionally attached to their victimizers, and even defended their captors after they were freed from their six-day ordeal. The term Stockholm Syndrome was coined by the criminologist and psychiatrist Nils Bejerot, who assisted the police during the robbery, and referred to the syndrome in a news broadcast.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Other uses</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Psychoanalytic explanations</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Sociological explanation</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Possible examples of Stockholm Syndrome</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Lima syndrome</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">In Popular Media</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Other_uses" id="Other_uses"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Other uses</span></h2> <p>Loyalty to a more powerful abuser — in spite of the danger that this loyalty puts the victim in — is common among victims of <span class="mw-redirect">domestic abuse</span>, battered partners and child abuse (dependent children). In many instances the victims choose to remain loyal to their abuser, and choose not to leave him or her, even when they are offered a safe placement in foster homes or safe houses. This unhealthy type of mental phenomenon is also known as Trauma-Bonding or Bonding-to-the-Perpetrator. This syndrome was described by <span class="mw-redirect">psychoanalysts</span> of the object relations theory school (<i>see</i> Fairbairn) as the phenomenon of psychological identification with the more powerful abuser. A variant of Stockholm Syndrome includes cases of abusive parents and abusive siblings in which the victim, even after entering adulthood, still justifies the family abuse.</p> <p><a name="Psychoanalytic_explanations" id="Psychoanalytic_explanations"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Psychoanalytic explanations</span></h2> <p>According to the psychoanalytic view of the syndrome, the tendency might well be the result of employing the strategy evolved by newborn babies to form an emotional attachment to the nearest powerful adult in order to maximize the probability that this adult will enable — at the very least — the survival of the child, if not also prove to be a good parental figure. This syndrome is considered a prime example for the <span class="mw-redirect">defense mechanism</span> of identification.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup></p> <p><a name="Sociological_explanation" id="Sociological_explanation"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Sociological explanation</span></h2> <p>Based on the capital theory by Pierre Bourdieu, five forms of capital from the economic to the symbolic are constantly fought over in the society. Social actions amount to capital which can be used for power in various fields of social interaction. This power depends on violently preventing others from accessing capital and it is the opposite to a non-violent social action, where the capitals are used to increase the capital possessed by others. In the marxist class theory, capital is essential for self-realization. It has been proposed that traditions maintain the class society and forms of capitalist violence. In a hostage situation, these traditions are by-passed in a way which may allow an unforeseen action from a lower class person to gain capital. As personal interests are in conflict with the traditional culture, this lapse of tradition provides to the victims an independent forum where they interpret the actions of the abductor outside traditional norms and relate to the abductor in a compassionate way. This may lead to the need of assuring that the powerfully felt struggle for social equality of the abductor succeeds. This need may be accompanied by a sense of security, which exists between a loyal person and the abductor. this explanation can be linked to the psychologist Aymon Hamdi.</p> <p><a name="Possible_examples_of_Stockholm_Syndrome" id="Possible_examples_of_Stockholm_Syndrome"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Possible examples of Stockholm Syndrome</span></h2> <ul><li>Colleen Stan, a.k.a. "Carol Smith" was held captive from 1977 until 1984 by <span class="mw-redirect">Cameron and Janice Hooker</span> in locked wooden boxes. She slept in a coffin-like box under the Hookers' bed. During her imprisonment Colleen was consistently tortured and sexually assaulted to the point of complete mental and physical subservience. Yet through it all, she stayed, even when it seemed she could escape. In the end, it would be left to a jury to answer the question: Was Colleen Stan brainwashed and forced to endure years of sexual degradation and mental torture as she and Janice Hooker contended, or a willing partner in her own enslavement, and as Cameron Hooker maintained, in a consensual "love" relationship? For an in-depth synopsis of the case, see <span class="external text">The Case of the Seven Year Sex Slave</span> and <span class="external text">Perfect Victim: The True Story of "The Girl in the Box" by the D.A. That Prosecuted Her Captor</span> [<span class="internal">ISBN 978-0440204428</span>]. Also documented with A&E's 'American Justice" episode 166.</li></ul> <ul><li>Millionaire heiress Patty Hearst was kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army. After two months in captivity, she actively took part in a robbery they were orchestrating. Her unsuccessful legal defense was that she suffered from Stockholm syndrome and was coerced into aiding the SLA. She was convicted and imprisoned for her actions in the robbery, though her sentence was commuted in February 1979 by President Jimmy Carter, and she received a <span class="mw-redirect">Presidential pardon</span> from Bill Clinton.</li></ul> <ul><li>Natascha Kampusch, a 10-year old Austrian child who was kidnapped by Wolfgang Priklopil before escaping at the age of 18 in 2006, showed signs of having suffered from Stockholm syndrome, as evidenced by her grieving after her captor's suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="mw-redirect">Shawn Hornbeck</span> was kidnapped at age 11 in 2002 and held for four years by Michael J. Devlin in Missouri. Shawn Hornbeck started using Devlin's last name and despite talking to police on two separate occasions about other unrelated matters Shawn Hornbeck did not seek the assistance of law enforcement. There have been many questions raised in the media reports surrounding his rescue in January 2007 about why he did not speak out earlier leading to reported speculation that he suffered from Stockholm Syndrome. However, there are many, including other victims of sexual abuse, and others who have been victims of kidnappings, who have expressed their understanding and support Shawn's decisions not to make an attempt to escape.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li>Elizabeth Smart, a 14 year old girl, was kidnapped from her home in <span class="mw-redirect">Salt Lake City</span> in June 2002 by two members of a fundamentalist polygamist sect, the homeless preacher Brian David "Emmanuel" Mitchell and his wife Wanda Barzee. At first Smart was kept tethered to a tree in a wooded canyon, dressed in white robes, and confined to a twenty-foot long trough with a lean-to over it, but after two months, the couple was able to take the girl with them to restaurants and other public places, her face veiled, and she no longer tried to escape. The trio travelled to San Diego, California and Las Vegas, Nevada, with Smart claiming to be the couple's daughter, but they eventually returned to Utah. By this time, Smart had become so attached to her captors that when she was finally approached by Utah law enforcement officials, who had been searching for her for nine months, she told them that she was 18 years old and Mitchell's polygamous wife. Only when she was shown a picture of herself as she had looked before her abduction did she admit that she was, in fact, Elizabeth Smart.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup></li></ul> <p><a name="Lima_syndrome" id="Lima_syndrome"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Lima syndrome</span></h2> <p>The Japanese embassy hostage crisis in December 1996 is currently touted as an example of so-called Lima Syndrome, in which the opposite effects from the Stockholm syndrome came into light. Rather than the captives becoming submissive, this incident showed signs of the MRTA guerrillas becoming more sympathetic to the plights and needs of their hostages.</p> <p><a name="In_Popular_Media" id="In_Popular_Media"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">In Popular Media</span></h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-style" style="margin: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text" style="width: auto;"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>In the book <i>Spook Country</i> by William Gibson, the character Hollis Henry mentions a friend who thinks that "America had developed Stockholm syndrome toward its own government, post 9/11."</p> <p>The condition is erroneously referred to as Helsinki syndrome in the film <i>Die Hard</i>, the X-Files episode "Folie a Deux", and the <i>Babylon 5</i> episode "The Illusion of Truth".</p> <p>"Stockholm Syndrome" is the title of songs by Yo La Tengo, Muse, Blink-182 and Milburn.</p> <p>The Who released a song about Stockholm Syndrome called "Black Widow's Eyes" on their 2006 album <i>Endless Wire</i>.</p> <p>Dee, a character on It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, fell victim to Stockholm Syndrome in an episode in which their bar, Paddy's, is held hostage.</p> <p>In an episode of the cartoon <i>Futurama</i>, when Bender and everyone else are taken hostage by another robot, Bender states "Hang on, I think I'm coming down with Stockholm Syndrome.... handsome."</p> <p>In the video game <i>Metal Gear Solid</i>, Snake tells Otacon while he is locked up that it seems like Otacons affection for a female mercenary trying to kill Snake is Stockholm Syndrome</p> <p>In a book by Lemony Snicket, <i>The Slippery Slope,</i> Sunny Baudelaire is kidnapped by Count Olaf on Mount Fraught. The narrator describes Stockholm Syndrome, then says that Sunny is experiencing Mount Fraught Syndrome, where the kidnappee becomes less and less sympathetic with their kidnapper.</p> <p>Stockholm Syndrome is mentioned in the James Bond film <i><span class="mw-redirect">The World is Not Enough</span></i> and may be the reason why Elektra King effectively helps to murder her father and supports the terrorist Renard, her kidnapper.</p> <p>In the episode of <i><span class="mw-redirect">House, MD</span></i> entitled "<span class="mw-redirect">Occam's Razor</span>", Dr. Foreman suggests that Dr. Cameron and Dr. Chase only agree with Dr. House because they are suffering from Stockholm Syndrome.</p> <p>In an episode of <i>The Simpsons</i> where The Simpsons go to Brazil to rescue an orphaned child, Homer is abducted by a taxi driver, and it is said by one of the kidnappers that Homer is suffering from Stockholm Syndrome.</p> <p>In an episode of <i>The Unit</i> the team rescues a hostage, only to find he is suffering from Stockholm Syndrome and attempts to kill Jonas.</p> <p>In the film, Never Say Never Again, a woman suffering from Stockholm Syndrome attacks James Bond in a training exercise.</p> <p>In the film, The Last Samurai, Captain Nathan Algren, an American military officer hired by the Emperor to train the Japanese army in the art of modern warfare, is captured by a Samurai group, becomes sympathetic, is eventually trained and fights to the death against the Emperor's army.</p> <p>In the mini series Kill Point, one of the hostages falls victim to Stockholm Syndrome when she becomes close to Mr. Wolf the leader of the bankrobbers.</p> <p>In the T.V series 'Lipstick Jungle' Season 1 Episode 6 the character Joe Bennet refers to Stockholm syndrome.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-71536173006526579242008-03-28T12:58:00.000-07:002008-03-28T12:59:55.810-07:00Marriage in South Korea<h1 class="firstHeading">Marriage in South Korea</h1><!-- start content --> <p><b>Marriage in South Korea</b> is similar to that of the western counterparts, but has unique features of its own.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Eligibility</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage within the same ancestral clan</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Traditional wedding ceremonies</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">The bride's attire</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">The groom's attire</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern style wedding ceremonies</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pratices before weddings</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding Halls</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding feast and reception</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Current practice</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">First marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sociopolitics of marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Wedding gifts</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Marriages within chaebols</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">International Marriages of Koreans and Non-Koreans</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Brides Imported from China, Vietnam and Other Countries</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">Same-sex marriage</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Type of marriages</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Arranged marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Love marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Matchmakers</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Remarriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage agencies</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Divorce</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Eligibility" id="Eligibility"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Eligibility</span></h2> <p>Marriage in South Korea is a union between a man and a woman. A man over 18 and a woman over 16 years old can marry with their parents' or guardians' consent, and a person over 20 can marry freely.</p> <p><a name="Marriage_within_the_same_ancestral_clan" id="Marriage_within_the_same_ancestral_clan"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriage within the same ancestral clan</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>In the past it was generally considered a taboo for a man and a woman to marry if they both have the same last name from the same ancestor. From this cultural influence, the article 809 of the Korean Civil code regulated marriages within a clan in the past, considering it as a type of exogamy. However, the Korean constitutional Court found this piece of legislation unconstitutional and asked for an amendment by the legislative branch in a 1997 decision. (5 judges found it unconstitutional and 2 asked for amendment by the legislative branch and 2 opposed to the outcome of this decision) The court specifically asked the legislative branch to amend the current civil code article 809 para 1 by the end of 1998 and hold further adjudication of this legislation. However, with the legislative branch not providing an additional legislation to oppose the decision by the Constitutional court, the decision was set to be final, allowing the people within the same ancestral clans to marry each other.</p> <p><a name="Traditional_wedding_ceremonies" id="Traditional_wedding_ceremonies"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Traditional wedding ceremonies</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Traditional Wedding" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/24/Korean_wedding.jpg/200px-Korean_wedding.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="150" width="200" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Traditional Wedding</div> </div> </div> <p>In ancient times, weddings were held in the bride's yard or house. The groom traveled by horse to the bride's house and after the wedding ceremony took his wife in a <span class="mw-redirect">palanquin</span> (cart) to his parents' house to live. The bride and groom wore formal court costumes for the wedding ceremony. Ordinary people were permitted to wear the luxurious clothes only on their wedding day. Hand lanterns are used for lighting the way from the groom's home to the bride's home on the night before the wedding. Traditionally, the groom's family would carry a wedding chest filled with gifts for the bride's family. Wedding ducks are a symbol for a long and happy marriage. Cranes are a symbol of long life and may be represented on the woman's sash.</p> <p>These customs are still in practice today.</p> <p><a name="The_bride.27s_attire" id="The_bride.27s_attire"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">The bride's attire</span></h3> <p>The women's attire includes a <i>jeogori</i> (저고리, short jacket with long sleeves) with 2 long ribbons which are tied to form the <i>otgoreum</i> (옷고름). A <i>chima</i> (치마), a full length, high waisted wrap around skirt is worn. (<i>See Chima jeogori or Hanbok</i>) Boat shaped shoes make of silk, are worn with white cotton socks. The bride's attire might include a white sash with significant symbols or flowers. A headpiece or crown may also be worn. The <i>norigae</i> (노리개) is a <i>hanbok</i> (한복) decoration which has been worn by all classes of Korean women for centuries. It is tied to the skirt or the ribbon on the jacket. The knot on the top is called the <i>Maedeup</i> (매듭).</p> <p><a name="The_groom.27s_attire" id="The_groom.27s_attire"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">The groom's attire</span></h3> <p>A jacket (<i>jeogori</i>, 저고리) and trousers and an overcoat are worn. The jacket has loose sleeves, the trousers are roomy and tied with straps at the ankles. A vest may be worn over the shirt. A black hat could be worn.</p> <p><a name="Modern_style_wedding_ceremonies" id="Modern_style_wedding_ceremonies"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Modern style wedding ceremonies</span></h2> <p>In larger cities, luxury hotels will have 'wedding halls' or ballrooms used specifically for wedding ceremonies. These rooms are decorated with a wedding motif and are rented to couples. Other wedding halls are independent facilities that can accommodate several different weddings at once.</p> <p>Today, many couples will initially have a more 'Westernized' ceremony with tuxedo attire and white wedding gown, then proceed with a smaller-scale, traditional wedding after the main ceremony.</p> <p><a name="Pratices_before_weddings" id="Pratices_before_weddings"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Pratices before weddings</span></h3> <p>Various exchanges that are so crucial to the Korean wedding. Those of household goods (<i>Honsu</i>); gifts of clothing and jewelry between the bride and groom (<i>Yedan</i>, <i>Chedan</i> and <i>Paemul</i>); gifts given to the significant kin of the groom ('<i>Yedan</i>); gifts of cash from the groom's kin to the bride (<i>Cholgap</i>), and from the bride's family to the groom's friends (<i>Hamgap</i>); and exchanges of food and wine between the two families (<i>Sangsu</i>) though not all practices are still common.</p> <p>The exchanges that are still common are those of ritual silk (<i><b>Yedan</b></i>), given by the bride to the groom's significant kin, and the negotiation of the purchase price of the gift box (<i><b>Hamgap</b></i>) delivered on the night before the wedding to the bride's house by friends of the groom. Indeed, her final chapter is dedicated to a wonderful economic anthropological consideration of the obligations and expectations of the various parties to the transaction of the gift box price. It is also in this chapter that considerations of the groom and his friends--the male side of getting married in Korea--receive attention.</p> <p><a name="Wedding_Halls" id="Wedding_Halls"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding Halls</span></h3> <p>Whereas a hotel ballroom or church must retain the flexibility necessary for other functions, independent wedding halls are able to focus strictly on weddings, and even cater to specific themes. Weddings in luxurious hotels had been prohibited by government in 1980, became partly permitted in 1994, and completely available for the general in 1999.<sup><span class="external autonumber">[1]</span></sup></p> <p>In busier wedding halls, the formality (outside the couple and their families) is typically relaxed compared to Western standards. There may be a buffet hall on one floor in which guests from all the different weddings come for a meal, either before or after the ceremony, which may take no longer than 20 minutes.</p> <p>The most common gift for a new couple is cash, and in the hall outside the wedding salon, representatives from the couple's families will collect and log donations.</p> <p><a name="Wedding_feast_and_reception" id="Wedding_feast_and_reception"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding feast and reception</span></h3> <p>The modern Korean wedding feast or reception, (<i>kyorhon piroyon</i>, 결혼 피로연) can be a mix of traditional and western cultures. At a traditional wedding feast a guest would expect to find <i>bulgogi</i> (불고기, marinated barbecue beef strips), <i>galbi</i> (갈비, marinated short ribs), a variety of <i>kimchi</i> (pickled cabbage with a variety of spices, with other ingredients such as radishes, seafood). There will be many accompanying bowls of sauces for dipping.</p> <p>The meal is always accompanied with a vast quantity of white, sticky rice (밥, bap) as well as <i>gimbap</i> (김밥), which is rice, egg, spinach, crab meats, pickled radish, and other ingredients rolled in seaweed and sliced into 1-inch rounds. <i>Mandu</i> (만두), dumplings filled with cabbage, carrots, meat, spinach, garlic, onions, chives, and clear noodles. These dumplings may be deep-fried or steamed. Soup will be offered, very frequently a <i>kimchi</i> type, or a rice cake soup (rice dumplings with chicken broth), or <i><span class="new">Doenjang guk</span></i>, a fermented soybean paste soup with clams.</p> <p>Also popular are a light broth boiled from dried anchovies and vegetable soups rendered from dried spinach, sliced radish or dried seaweed. Steamed rice cakes (<i>tteok</i>) sometimes embellished with aromatic mugwort leaves or dusted with toasted soy, barley, or millet flour are presented as tasty ritual food.</p> <p>A large variety of fruits, such as Korean pears, and pastries will be offered for dessert. A spoon and chopsticks are used for eating.</p> <p><a name="Current_practice" id="Current_practice"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Current practice</span></h2> <p><a name="First_marriage" id="First_marriage"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">First marriage</span></h4> <p>As of 2007, according to <span class="new">Korea National Statistical Office</span>, the average age of the first marriage is 31.1 for men and 28.1 for women.<sup><span class="external autonumber">[2]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Sociopolitics_of_marriage" id="Sociopolitics_of_marriage"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Sociopolitics of marriage</span></h4> <p>In a large number of marriages, the male is older than the female. This age disparity is usually intentional. The woman always seeks a man who is at least equal to if not higher than her in socio-economic status. Rarely does an arranged marriage happen where the man is lower in socio-economic status than the woman, either in socio-economic status, class or by height.</p> <p><a name="Wedding_gifts" id="Wedding_gifts"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Wedding gifts</span></h4> <p>If someone brings a gift to the wedding, it is not expected that the gift will be opened immediately. The Korean custom is to open gifts in private.</p> <p><a name="Marriages_within_chaebols" id="Marriages_within_chaebols"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriages within <i>chaebols</i></span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 252px;"><span class="image"><img alt="(Korean) A diagram of marriages between chaebols" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7e/Chaebol_marriage_diagram.jpg/250px-Chaebol_marriage_diagram.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="155" width="250" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> <span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(85, 85, 85);">(Korean)</span> A diagram of marriages between chaebols</div> </div> </div> <p>Families of large conglomerates or <i><span class="mw-redirect">chaebols</span></i> such as Samsung Group, LG Group, SK Group, Hyundai Group, etc. are closely connected with marriage chains interlinking each other.</p> <p><a name="International_Marriages_of_Koreans_and_Non-Koreans" id="International_Marriages_of_Koreans_and_Non-Koreans"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">International Marriages of Koreans and Non-Koreans</span></h4> <p>There were 43,121 international marriages between Koreans and non-Koreans in 2005, up 21.6 percent from a year earlier, according to <span class="external text">Korea National Statistics Office</span> data published in the <span class="external text">Korea Times</span> newspaper on March 30, 2006 <sup><span class="external autonumber">[3]</span></sup>. Fourteen out of 100 couples who married in 2005 were international couples. The largest group of South Koreans marrying foreign spouses has been men who marry Chinese, Vietnamese or Filipina women. South Korean women who married foreign men have most often married Chinese or Japanese. Close to twelve percent of those marrying foreigners married Americans in 2005.</p> <p><a name="Brides_Imported_from_China.2C_Vietnam_and_Other_Countries" id="Brides_Imported_from_China.2C_Vietnam_and_Other_Countries"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Brides Imported from China, Vietnam and Other Countries</span></h4> <p>In recent times, about one third of South Korean men in rural areas married women from abroad, according to Korea National Statistics Office data published in the Chosun Daily newspaper on March 30, 2006 <sup><span class="external autonumber">[4]</span></sup>.</p> <p>Brides have come to South Korea mainly from China, Vietnam, and in a distant 4th, the Philippines<sup><span class="external autonumber">[5]</span></sup>. The most common explanation for this phenomenon is that there is a lack of South Korean women who are willing to marry men living in rural areas. Chinese citizens who are ethnic Koreans (called <span class="mw-redirect">"Joseon-jok"</span> by South Koreans) and Vietnamese are preferred as imported brides, although there are also a significant number of ethnic Chinese brides as well. Joseon-jok from China have the same ethnic background as Koreans, thus easily explaining their popularity. It is said among South Koreans that Vietnamese and Chinese brides are popular for many rural South Korean men because of their appearance and also the likelihood that they have experience in farming. Also, many Koreans believe women from these countries are more capable of adapting to their new environment compared to women from other countries, and become dedicated and loyal wives.</p> <p>Economic factors play a strong role in these marriages, as it is usually less educated Korean men from rural areas who marry mostly less educated and poor foreign brides.</p> <p>Marriages between South Korean men and foreign women are often arranged by <span class="mw-redirect">marriage brokers</span> or international religious groups. There is mounting evidence to suggest that there is a statistically higher level of poverty, violence and divorce in the Korean men married to foreign women cohort <sup><span class="external autonumber">[6]</span></sup>, <sup><span class="external autonumber">[7]</span></sup><sup><span class="external autonumber">[8]</span></sup>.</p> <p><a name="Same-sex_marriage" id="Same-sex_marriage"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Same-sex marriage</span></h4> <p>Same-sex marriage is not legally-recognised in South Korea. Homosexuality is strongly criticized in mainstream Korean society, and many Koreans consider homosexuality to be a Western phenomenon. However, recent blockbuster movies such as The King and the Clown have raised the issue of homosexuality in Korea, and homosexuality is becoming more accepted. Despite the illegality of same-sex marriage in Korea, though, more and more gay couples are marrying in private ceremonies, especially since the coming-out of popular Korean actor <span class="new">Hong Suk-cheon</span> in 2000. The first public <span class="mw-redirect">gay marriage</span> was on March 7, 2004. <sup><span class="external autonumber">[9]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Type_of_marriages" id="Type_of_marriages"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Type of marriages</span></h2> <p><a name="Arranged_marriage" id="Arranged_marriage"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Arranged marriage</span></h3> <p>Arranged marriage is popular in South Korea. Koreans usually refer to this type of marriage as <i><span class="new">Seon</span></i> (선). Generally, parents arrange a meeting. The reason why this type of marriage is prevalent in Korea is that marriage in Korea is not just a matter of a bride and groom but a merging of two families. Because the potential spouses are pre-screened by the family, there is much less of a chance of family opposition to the marriage. It is extremely rare that a single Seon leads to a marriage; many succeed in finding a suitable spouse only after dozens of Seon meetings with different individuals. Following the initial meeting, the couple typically date for several months to a year before the actual marriage. The distinction between an arranged marriage and a "love" marriage is therefore often blurred, although in an arranged marriage the families tend to be more closely involved throughout.</p> <p><a name="Love_marriage" id="Love_marriage"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Love marriage</span></h3> <p>"Love" marriage, as it is often called in South Korea, has become common in the past few decades. The expression refers to the marriage of two people who meet and fall in love without going through matchmakers or family-arranged meetings . Most often, the bride and groom first met on a blind date arranged by friends, on a group date, at their workplace, or while in college or university. South Korean families accept this type of marriage more readily than they used to, although it is not uncommon for romantic relationships to end without resulting in a marriage because of family opposition. Surveys indicate that the majority of young Koreans would rather end a relationship than to marry despite parental opposition.</p> <p><a name="Matchmakers" id="Matchmakers"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Matchmakers</span></h3> <p>Matchmakers are common in South Korea. Families present their son or daughter to a matchmaker, or a single man or woman arranges a meeting with a matchmaker, to analyze their resume and family history for the purpose of finding a marriage partner who is compatible in social status and earning potential. Koreans keep precise lineage records, and these are listed on the matchmaking resume. Today, almost all single people meet their matched partner prior to the marriage and have more say about the match than was previously allowed. Matchmakers earn a fee for their services.</p> <p><a name="Remarriage" id="Remarriage"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Remarriage</span></h3> <p><span class="mw-redirect">Remarriages</span> are becoming more common in South Korea. According to South Korean government statistics reported in the Korea Times newspaper, the number of remarriages went up 16.1 percent to 44,355 in 2004. <sup><span class="external autonumber">[10]</span></sup> The number of elderly Koreans remarrying has doubled since 1995.<sup><span class="external autonumber">[11]</span></sup> The South Korean marriage agency Duo first began advertising its remarriage services in 2006.</p> <p><a name="Marriage_agencies" id="Marriage_agencies"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriage agencies</span></h3> <p>The top three <span class="mw-redirect">marriage agencies</span> in South Korea are <span class="new">Duo</span>, <span class="new">Sunoo</span> and <span class="new">Piery</span>.</p> <p><a name="Divorce" id="Divorce"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Divorce</span></h2> <p>Divorce, once almost nonexistent, first appeared in significant numbers in the 1970s, now it is very common. Rapidly changing attitudes toward divorce, as well as such other issues as marriage, childbearing and cohabitation, show a South Korea in the throes of a social transformation. Still anchored in Confucian values of family and patriarchy, South Korea is fast becoming an open, modernized society with the world's highest concentration of Internet broadband users, a pop culture that has recently been breaking taboos left and right, and living patterns increasingly focusing on individual satisfaction.</p> <p>As of 2004, 458 couples are getting divorced each day. The average age of the divorce is 41.3 years for men and 37.9 years for women.</p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-98917381237293482008-03-28T12:53:00.000-07:002008-03-28T12:54:23.347-07:00Bride kidnapping<h1 class="firstHeading">Bride kidnapping</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Bride kidnapping</b>, also known as <b>marriage by abduction</b> or <b>marriage by capture</b>, is a form of marriage practiced in a few traditional cultures, in countries spanning Central Asia, the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and among the Hmong in southeast Asia. In most countries, bride kidnapping is considered a <span class="mw-redirect">sex crime</span>, rather than a valid form of marriage. However, some versions of it may also be seen as falling along the continuum between forced marriage and arranged marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background and rationale</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Central Asia</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ala kachuu</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Role of the family</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Catholic law</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">In history</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">In film</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Features</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Documentaries</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">In television</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Background_and_rationale" id="Background_and_rationale"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Background and rationale</span></h2> <p>In <span class="mw-redirect">agricultural</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">patriarchal</span> societies, where bride kidnapping is most common, children work for their family. A woman leaves her birth family, geographically and economically, when she marries, becoming instead a member of the groom's family. (See <span class="mw-redirect">patrilocality</span> for an anthropological explanation.) Due to this loss of labor, the women's families do not want their daughters to marry young, and demand economic compensation known as a bride price when they do leave them. This conflicts with the interests of men, who want to marry early, as marriage means an increase in social status, and the interests of the groom's family, who will gain another pair of hands for the family farm or business. Paradoxically, being "kidnapped" might also be in the interests of the woman in such societies, as her role in the society would preclude her from choosing a husband for herself, at the risk of being disowned or even killed. It may also be the only socially acceptable way for her to become a <span class="mw-redirect">mother</span>, a desirable and highly prized status for many women. Depending on the legal system under which they live, the consent of the woman may not be a factor in judging the validity of the marriage.</p> <p>The mechanism of bride kidnappings varies depending on where it is taking place.</p> <p><a name="Africa" id="Africa"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Africa</span></h2> <p>In Ethiopia and Rwanda it is quite brutal, where the man <span class="mw-redirect">kidnaps</span> the woman and rapes her. The family of the woman either then feels obliged to consent to the union, or is forced to when the kidnapper impregnates her, as no one else would marry a pregnant woman.</p> <p><a name="Central_Asia" id="Central_Asia"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Central Asia</span></h2> <p>In Central Asia the practice is different. Bride kidnapping exists in Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Karakalpakstan. The young man decides he wishes to marry and asks his parents to pick him out a suitable bride, or is told by his parents that it is time he settled down and that they have found someone of the right background and attributes. (In this sense, it is similar to an arranged marriage, although the arranging is all on one side.) The prospective groom and his male relatives or friends or both abduct the girl (in the old nomadic days, on horseback; now often by car) and take her to the family home, where the older women of the family try to get her to accept the marriage. They may do this by pointing out the advantages of the union, such as the wealth of their smallholding, to show her what she would gain by joining their family. Some families will keep the girl hostage for several days to break her will. Others will let her go if she remains defiant; she may, for example, refuse to sit down or to eat, as a sign that she is refusing the proffered hospitality. During this period, the groom typically does not see the bride until she has agreed to marry or at least has agreed to stay. The kidnapped woman's family may also become involved in the process, either urging the woman to stay (particularly if the marriage is believed socially acceptable or advantageous for the prospective bride and her family), or opposing the marriage on various grounds and helping to liberate the woman.</p> <p>While less violent than that practiced elsewhere, the essence of the process, in the model above, is still the same and in some cases does result in sexual violence. Such social stigma is attached to a refusal that the kidnapped woman usually feels that she has no choice but to agree, and some of those who refuse even commit suicide after the kidnapping <span class="external autonumber">[1]</span>. The matter is somewhat confused by the local use of the term <i>bride kidnap</i> to reflect practices along a continuum, from forcible abduction and rape (and then, almost unavoidably, marriage), to something akin to an elopement arranged between the two young people, to which both sets of parents have to consent after the fact. Although the practice is illegal in Kyrgyzstan, bride kidnappers are rarely prosecuted, because many villages are de facto ruled by councils of elders following traditional cultural practices, away from the eyes of the state legal system. It was the Russian and later <span class="mw-redirect">USSR</span> colonizing powers that made the ancient practice of the nomads illegal, and so with the fall of the Soviet Union and the subsequent liberation of the Central Asian nations, many have harked back to old customs as a way of asserting cultural identity.</p> <p><a name="Ala_kachuu" id="Ala_kachuu"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline"><i>Ala kachuu</i></span></h3> <p>Despite its illegality, in many, primarily rural, areas bride kidnapping is still the accepted way of taking a wife. This act of <i>ala kachuu</i> (to take and flee) prevails to this day, despite modern social and moral standards. Women play an integral role in the process: the success of the kidnapping is dependant on her conduct while she is held hostage. If she truly does not wish to stay, she will not accept the family's advances. She may tell them that she has a boyfriend, or impart to them that she is not a <span class="mw-redirect">virgin</span>, which still carries a major social stigma. Many of these women have boyfriends and participate in dating, which can make the experience all the more traumatic. A couple may court for many months, but another suitor could still kidnap the young woman, as she is unmarried. The question, "What would you do if you were kidnapped?" is asked of many Kyrgyz women in their late teens and early twenties. While this may not be their preferred method of becoming engaged, a majority of them, consensual or nonconsensual, do end up married in this way. <i>Ala kachuu</i> is a tradition that has endured to the present day in Central Asia and is integral to their society and culture.</p> <p><a name="Role_of_the_family" id="Role_of_the_family"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Role of the family</span></h3> <p>The families of both the <span class="mw-redirect">bride</span> and the groom play large roles in these arranged marriages. The groom's family, primarily the menfolk, decide who they want to kidnap and take as the bride. Often, rather than selecting a particular young woman to kidnap, they select a house; that way they can still kidnap one of the sisters if the woman they desire is not home <sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup>. Once at the home of the bride, they grab the woman and bring her back to the groom's house. The girl's family is usually also there, as they know about the kidnapping and encourage their loved one to accept the man as her husband and to stay with him. The woman can still leave the house, but her family usually does everything in their power to convince the girl to stay. The reason for this is that as women get older, the culture sees them as less desirable. Therefore, the family has no idea if she will still be able to find a husband if she does not accept this man. Since young women are obedient to their parents in Central Asia, they will stay with the husband. <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup></p> <p><a name="Catholic_law" id="Catholic_law"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Catholic law</span></h2> <p>In Catholic canon law, the impediment of <i>raptus</i> specifically prohibits marriage between a woman abducted with intent to force her to marry, and her abductor, as long as the woman remains in the abductor's power.</p> <p><a name="In_history" id="In_history"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">In history</span></h2> <p>Marriage by capture was practiced in ancient cultures throughout the <span class="mw-redirect">Mediterranean</span> area. It is represented in mythology and history by the tribe of Benjamin in the Bible<span class="external autonumber">[2]</span>; by the Greek hero Paris stealing the beautiful <span class="mw-redirect">Helen of Troy</span> from her husband Menelaus, thus triggering the Trojan War; and by The Rape of the Sabine Women by Romulus, the founder of Rome (parodied by English short-story writer Saki in <i>The Schartz-Metterklume Method</i>).</p> <p>According to some sources, the honeymoon is a relic of marriage by capture, based on the practice of the husband going into hiding with his wife to avoid reprisals from her relatives, with the intention that the woman would be pregnant by the end of the month.</p> <p><a name="In_film" id="In_film"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">In film</span></h2> <p><a name="Features" id="Features"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Features</span></h3> <p>Bride capture has been displayed somewhat humorously in <span class="mw-redirect">Pedro Almodovar</span>'s 1990 film <i>¡Átame!</i> (<i>Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!</i>), starring Antonio Banderas and Victoria Abril. It is the underlying theme behind the Korean movie <i>The Bow,</i> as well as the <span class="mw-redirect">Soviet</span> comedy <i>Kidnapping, Caucasian Style</i> (Russian: <span lang="ru" lang="ru">Кавказская пленница, или Новые приключения Шурика</span>). It featured in the Hollywood musical <i>Seven Brides for Seven Brothers</i>. Bride capture also offers a honorable solution in the Italian comedy <i>Seduced and Abandoned</i>.</p> <p>In the 2006 comedy <i>Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan</i>, the eponymous fictional reporter Borat, played by British comedian/satirist Sacha Baron Cohen, attempts to kidnap actress Pamela Anderson in order to take her as his wife. He brings a "wedding sack" which he has made for the occasion, suggesting that such kidnappings are a tradition in his parody of Kazakhstan.</p> <p><a name="Documentaries" id="Documentaries"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Documentaries</span></h3> <p>In 2005, a documentary titled <i><span class="new">Bride Kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan</span></i> made by <span class="new">Petr Lom</span> was presented at the UNAFF 2005 festival, and subsequently on <span class="mw-redirect">PBS</span> in the United States. The film met controversy in Kyrgyzstan because of ethical concerns about the filming of real kidnappings.</p> <p><a name="In_television" id="In_television"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">In television</span></h2> <p>In the BBC radio and television comedy series <i>The League of Gentlemen</i>, the character Papa Lazarou comes to the fictional town of Royston Vasey under the guise of a peg-seller to kidnap women by entering their homes, talking gibberish to them (Gippog) and persuading them to hand over their wedding rings. He 'names' them all 'Dave', and, after obtaining their rings, proclaims that they're "[his] wife now".</p> <p><a name="Bibliography" id="Bibliography"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bibliography</span></h2> <ul><li>Barnes, R. H. “Marriage by Capture.” <i>The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, Vol. 5, No. 1. (March 1999), pp. 57-73.</li></ul> <ul><li>Bates, Daniel G. “Normative and Alternative Systems of Marriage among the Yörük of Southeastern Turkey.” <i>Anthropological Quarterly</i>, 47:3 (Jul., 1974), pp. 270-287.</li></ul> <ul><li>Handrahan, Lori. 2004. “Hunting for Women: Bride-Kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan.” <i>International Feminist Journal of Politics</i>, 6:2 (June), 207–233.</li></ul> <ul><li>Herzfeld, Michael “Gender Pragmatics: Agency, Speech, and Bride Theft in a Cretan</li></ul> <p>Mountain Village.” <i>Anthropology</i> 1985, Vol. IX: 25-44.</p> <ul><li>Kleinbach, Russell. “Frequency of non-consensual bride kidnapping in the Kyrgyz Republic.” <i>International Journal of Central Asian Studies</i>. Vol 8, No 1, 2003, pp 108–128.</li></ul> <ul><li>Light, Nathan and Damira Imanalieva. “Performing Ala Kachuu: Marriage Strategies in the Kyrgyz Republic”.</li></ul> <ul><li>——, Mehrigiul Ablezova and Medina Aitieva. “Kidnapping for marriage (ala kachuu) in a Kyrgyz village.” <i>Central Asian Survey</i>. (June 2005) 24(2), 191–202.</li></ul> <ul><li>Pusurmankulova, Burulai. "Bride Kidnapping. Benign Custom Or Savage Tradition?" <span class="external free">http://faculty.philau.edu/kleinbachr/freedom.htm</span> under the auspices of Freedom House</li></ul> <ul><li>Stross, Brian. “Tzeltal Marriage by Capture.” <i>Anthropological Quarterly</i>. 47:3 (July 1974), pp. 328-346.</li></ul> <ul><li>Werner, Cynthia, “Women, marriage, and the nation-state: the rise of nonconsensual bride kidnapping in post-Soviet Kazakhstan,” in <i>The Transformation of Central Asia</i>. Pauline Jones Luong, ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004, pp. 59–89.</li></ul>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-49677003127104795142008-03-28T12:48:00.000-07:002008-03-28T12:52:55.131-07:00Arranged marriage<h1 class="firstHeading">Arranged marriage</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-style"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> </td> <td class="ambox-text"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><span class="plainlinks"></span><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Globe icon" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/39px-Gnome-globe.svg.png" border="0" height="39" width="39" /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><small>.</small></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 302px;"><span class="image"><img alt=""Marriage à-la-mode" by William Hogarth: a satire on arranged marriages and prediction of ensuing disaster" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/William_Hogarth_038.jpg/300px-William_Hogarth_038.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="228" width="300" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> "Marriage à-la-mode" by William Hogarth: a satire on arranged marriages and prediction of ensuing disaster</div> </div> </div> <p>An <b>arranged marriage</b> is a marriage arranged by someone other than the persons getting married, curtailing or avoiding the process of courtship. Such marriages are not uncommon in the Middle East, parts of Kentucky, and Tennessee. Other groups that practice this custom include the Unification Movement, and royal families.</p> <p>Note that the term "<b>arranged marriage</b>" is used even if the parents have no direct involvement in selecting the spouse. The match could be selected by a matchmaking agent, matrimonials site, or trusted third party. In many communities, priests or religious leaders as well as trusted relatives or family friends play a major role in matchmaking.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Alternate uses of arranged marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Variations</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">A culture of arranged marriage</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Factors considered in matchmaking</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Caste</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Immigration</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Arguments for and against</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Against</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">For</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Issues common to both arranged and love marriage</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Alternate_uses_of_arranged_marriage" id="Alternate_uses_of_arranged_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Alternate uses of arranged marriage</span></h2> <p>The pattern of arranged marriage be employed for other reasons beside the formation of a promising new family unit. In such marriages, typically economic or legal reasons take precedence over the goal of selecting a well-matched couple. Though critics are not always specific, criticism of arranged marriage usually targets abuses such as forced marriage and child marriage.</p> <ul><li>In a <b>forced marriage</b>, the parents choose their son's or daughter's future spouse with no input from the son or daughter. This form of arranged marriage is rare in the modern Western world, but not quite as rare in some other parts of the world. Occasionally, even if the son or daughter disapproves of the choice, the marriage takes place regardless, overriding their objections. In some societies, in order to ensure cooperation the parents may threaten the child with punishment, or in rare cases, <span class="mw-redirect">disinheritance</span> and death. Motivating factors for such a marriage tend to be social or economic, i.e., the interests of the family or community goals served by the marriage are seen as paramount, and the preference of the individual is considered insignificant.</li></ul> <ul><li>In a <b>child marriage</b>, children, or even infants, are married. The married children often live apart with their respective families until well after puberty. Child marriages are typically made for economic or political reasons. In rural India and several other countries, the requirement of providing a dowry for daughters is generally acknowledged to be a contributing factor to <span class="mw-redirect">female infanticide</span>.</li></ul> <ul><li>In a <b>shotgun wedding</b>, the groom is forced to marry the bride due to unplanned pregnancy (or other reasons). It is given this colloquial name from the traditional method of force used; holding a shotgun to the groom's head until he is married. This can also be classified as a forced marriage. Although it is worth noting that the concept came about before the invention of the shotgun. Laws of Old Testament Israel said that an unengaged couple caught in extramartial sex were forced into marriage by law.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup> A reason is never given in the text, but it is likely predicated on the text's specification that the woman was a virgin; no longer being a virgin, it would be difficult for her to find a marriage, and so her sexual partner must marry her provide for her well-being. Alternatively, it could be based on family honor, i.e. it was shameful for her to have had relations without being married, and it would be all the more shameful if she had a child out of wedlock.</li></ul> <p>This was done to protect the families from sexually transmitted disease.</p> <p>Coercion to marry is commonly considered a violation of fundamental human rights in most Western societies, primarily because of its usurpation of a choice that, in most Western thought, belongs solely to the individuals involved. People can "find themselves stuck in marriages with persons decidedly not of their own choosing...whom they may find personally repulsive."<sup id="cite_ref-xiaohe_1-0" class="reference">[2]</sup></p> <p>A further condemnation of the practice of arranging marriage for economic reasons comes from Edlund and Lagerlöf (2004) who argued that a love marriage is more effective for the promotion of accumulation of wealth and societal growth.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup></p> <p><a name="Variations" id="Variations"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Variations</span></h2> <p>Abuses aside, it is ordinarily a fundamental tenet of arranged marriage that the union is a choice made voluntarily by the two people involved.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>. The main variation in procedure between arranged marriages is in the nature and duration of the time from meeting to engagement.</p> <p>In an <b>introduction only</b> arranged marriage, the parents may only introduce their son or daughter to a potential spouse. The parents may briefly talk to the parents of the prospective spouse. From that point on, it is up to the children to manage the relationship and make a choice. There is no set time period. This is still common in the rural parts of <span class="new">North/South America</span>, and especially in India. The same pattern also appears in Japan. It should be noted that this open-ended process takes considerably more courage on the part of the parents, as well as the prospective spouses, in comparison to a fixed time-limit arranged marriage. Especially women, but also men, fear the stigma and emotional trauma of going through a courtship and then being rejected.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>To contrast, a <b>traditional arranged marriage</b> may be finalized in the first meeting. The parents or matchmaker select the pair, there is no possibility of courtship, and only limited conversation between the prospective partners is permitted (while the parents are present); then the prospective partners are expected to decide whether to proceed with the marriage. The parents may exert considerable pressure to encourage the potential bride or bridegroom to agree to the match. The parents may wish the match to proceed because the son or daughter is beginning to engage in courtship (and the parents disapprove of courtship)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup>, the parents believe that they know best what kind of partner will make a happy marriage, the parents seek to fulfill the desire for parental control, or for other reasons.</p> <p>A more moderate and flexible procedure known as a <b>modern arranged marriage</b> is gaining in popularity. Parents choose several possible candidates or employ a <span class="mw-redirect">Matrimonials Sites</span>. The parents will then arrange a meeting with the family of the prospective mate, confining their role to responsible facilitators and well-wishers. Less pressure to agree to the match is exerted by the parents in comparison to a traditional arranged marriage.</p> <p>In some cases, a prospective partner may be selected by the son or daughter instead of by the parents or by a matchmaker. In such cases, the parents will either disapprove of the match and forbid the marriage or, just as likely, approve the match and agree to proceed with the marriage. Such cases are distinct from a love marriage because courtship is curtailed or absent and the parents retain the prerogative to forbid the match.</p> <p><a name="A_culture_of_arranged_marriage" id="A_culture_of_arranged_marriage"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">A culture of arranged marriage</span></h3> <p>In cultures where dating, singles' bars, etc., are not prevalent, arranged marriages perform a similar function--bringing together people who might otherwise not have met. In such cultures, arranged marriage is viewed as the norm and preferred by young adults. Even where courtship practices are becoming fashionable, young adults tend to view arranged marriage as an option they can fall back on if they are unable or unwilling to spend the time and effort necessary to find a spouse on their own.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> In such cases, the parents become welcome partners in a hunt for marital bliss. Further, in several cultures, the last duty of a parent to his or her son or daughter is to see that they pass through the marital rites.</p> <p>In some cultures, arranged marriage is a tradition handed down through many generations. Parents who take their son or daughter's marriage into their own hands have themselves been married by the same process. Many parents, and children likewise, feel pressure from the community to conform, and in certain cultures a love marriage or even courtship is considered a failure on the part of the parents to maintain control over their child<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>. In such cultures, children are brought up with these cultural assumptions do not feel stifled. They experience them as natural boundaries.</p> <p>Parents in some communities fear social and/or religious stigma if their child is not married by a certain age.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Several cultures deem the son or daughter less likely to find a suitable partner if they are past a certain age, and consider it folly to try to marry them off at that stage.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In these societies, including China, the intragenerational relationship of the family is much more valued than the marital relationship. The whole purpose of the marriage is to have a family.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup></p> <p><a name="Factors_considered_in_matchmaking" id="Factors_considered_in_matchmaking"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Factors considered in matchmaking</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>Although matchmaking primarily on an economic or legal basis is harshly criticized, such considerations are often factors of secondary importance and significantly influence the rank order of a potential spouse.</p> <p>Some of these factors in some order of priority may be taken into account for the purpose of matchmaking:</p> <ul><li>Reputation of the family</li></ul> <ul><li>Vocation: For a groom, the profession of doctor, accountant, lawyer, engineer, or scientist are traditionally valued as excellent spouse material. More recently, any profession commanding relatively high income is also given preference. Vocation is less important for a bride but it is not uncommon for two people of the same vocation to be matched.</li></ul> <ul><li>Wealth: Families holding substantial assets may prefer to marry to another wealthy family.</li></ul> <ul><li>Appearance: There may be a preference that beauty and weight be comparable. In India the bride is expected to be as fair-skinned as possible<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Religion: The religious and spiritual beliefs can play a large role in finding a suitable spouse.</li></ul> <ul><li>Pre-existing <span class="mw-redirect">medical</span> conditions: Two persons with a physical deformity or disability who are otherwise marriageable may be matched.</li></ul> <ul><li>Horoscope: Numerology and the positions of stars at birth is often used in Indian culture to predict the success of a particular match. This is sometimes expressed as a percentage, for example, a 70% match. Horoscope becomes a determining factor is one of the partners is <i>Mângalik</i> (lit., negatively influenced by Mars).</li></ul> <ul><li>Dietary preference: <span class="mw-redirect">Vegetarian</span> or omnivore (often automatically determined by the caste among Hindus)</li></ul> <ul><li>Height: Typically the groom should be taller than the bride.</li></ul> <ul><li>Age difference: Typically the groom should be older than the bride.</li></ul> <ul><li>Other factors: City of residence, education level, etc.</li></ul> <p><a name="Caste" id="Caste"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Caste</span></h3> <p>Among most Indian Hindus, the hereditary system of caste (Hindi: <i>jâti</i>) is an extremely important factor in arranged marriage. Arranged marriages, and parents, almost always require that the married persons should be of the same caste. Sometimes inter-caste marriage is one of the principal reasons of familial rejection or anger with the marriage. The proof can be seen by the numerous Indian marriage websites on the Worldwide Web, most of which are by caste. Even within the caste, there is obligation, followed strictly by many communities, to marry (their son/daughter) <i>outside</i> the gotra (sub-caste or clan). E.g., most Vaishyas (the business/merchant caste) prohibit marriage within the same <i>gotra</i>, because being of the same lineage the spouses would be though of (almost) as brother and sister. It must however be noted that modern India, being a secular democracy, does not prohibit inter-caste or intra-gotra marriage (by the Hindu Marriage Act), but neither does it prohibit the caste system completely (only <i>caste discrimination</i> is prohibited). Caste Associations are still very much legal (sometimes they call themselves by more acceptable names, like <i>samâj</i>, lit., society). Recently, one of such caste associations fined its member (a state legislator) for permitting his son's inter-caste marriage: <i>A Congress MLA from Chhattisgarh had to pay a fine of Rs 24,000 to the community he belongs to following his son’s inter-caste marriage.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Inter_caste_marriage_5-0" class="reference">[6]</sup></p> <p>On the other hand, many Indian families who consider the caste system as an artificial excuse for social inequity have the opposite preference. They prefer to marry persons of differing caste and tend to avoid matches within the same caste. It is believed that intercaste marriages weaken the caste system and thus reduce social inequality caused by the caste stratification. Such families are also often open to marriages across national borders. But even among them are some families who, if of the upper castes, will not accept marriage with the so-called low castes (like dalits)</p> <p><a name="Immigration" id="Immigration"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Immigration</span></h3> <p>In few arranged marriages, one potential spouse may reside in a wealthy country and the other in a poorer country. For example, the man may be an American of Indian ancestry and the woman may be an Indian living in India who will move to America after the marriage.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Alternately, the man or woman may be a citizen of the United States of America and the other person is in Russia or another country and is willing to move to the USA after the marriage. The arrangement may be accomplished by a business created for such a purpose<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>.</p> <dl><dt>Positive points</dt></dl> <ul><li>The parents of the wealthy man may feel secure knowing that their son is to marry a person of their own country and traditional culture rather a woman corrupted by Western influences.</li><li>The parents of the bride hope that their daughter enjoys a higher standard of living.</li><li>Couples and their parents need not have to cope up with differing cultural and social backgrounds.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Negative points</dt></dl> <ul><li>Couples may be incompatible due to cultural differences. One spouse may retain traditional values while the other spouse has accepted practices of the country he or she is living in.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference">[7]</sup></li><li>The time window available for the entire process is narrow. Prospective brides must be lined up for a series of meetings when the man is able to take leave to travel to his home country. The decision must be finalised and the marriage registered before he leaves so that visa formalities for his wife can be commenced immediately. Sometimes two or three visits (over as many years) are required to sort out all the legal details.</li><li>The two parties cannot directly meet without travelling to the other country. The upfront cost increases the pressure to make a decision yet less is known about the prospective mate because of the great distance separating the two.</li><li>Limited choice: In some cases, the parents may mandate that the bride must originate from their son's home country.</li></ul> <p>See also Mail-order bride</p> <p><a name="Arguments_for_and_against" id="Arguments_for_and_against"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Arguments for and against</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/50px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" border="0" height="44" width="50" /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><a name="Against" id="Against"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Against</span></h3> <p>Amongst the arguments against arranged marriage, the most prominent are:</p> <ul><li>Arranged marriage may prove loveless. Some people dislike the prospect of being married to someone they do not already love. Partners in an arranged marriage are usually less likely to divorce for cultural reasons, so if the marriage does not work well, it can be a trap, particularly for the female partner, who is often disempowered (socially and economically).</li></ul> <ul><li>Individuals are the best arbiters of their own lives. Arranged marriage can be a great denial of individual rights—of the self. This argument is often rebutted with the substantial asymmetry of knowledge about marriage between the person wishing to get married and the third-party. The parents or matchmaker likely have been married for more than 20 years whereas the person wishing to be married has no experience (at least for a first marriage).</li></ul> <ul><li>In developed countries arranged marriages are often used as a form of colonisation. Arranged marriages are often used by people who have not integrated into the host nation as a way to marry and maintain what they see as their culture even though they may be second or third generation descendants of the original immigrants. This can lead to racial tension in the host country.</li></ul> <ul><li>In case of countries like India, arranged marriages almost always encourage the continued existence of the caste system in the society.</li></ul> <p><a name="For" id="For"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">For</span></h3> <p>Proponents of arranged marriage believe that individuals can be too easily influenced by the effects of love to make a logical choice.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference">[8]</sup></p> <dl><dt>Reduction or elimination of incompatibilities</dt><dd>Marital incompatibility has been found to be the major reason for divorce<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>, some Asian writers (especially in India) suggest that arranged marriages might promote a higher probability of success because they tend to match persons with a compatible, but not necessary identical, profile (refer to the factors considered in matchmaking). The parents or matchmaker may draw from the experience of typically at least 20 years of married life to inform their judgment.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Addresses female anxiety</dt><dd>Studies have found that men are more eager for sex than are women. Women are more likely to set limits on such activity.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference">[9]</sup> With the assurance of a socially sanctioned marriage, women are less anxious. The new couple may engage in sexual intimacy within, perhaps, 10 days after the first introduction. Men need less patience and face less frustration.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Low expectations</dt><dd>Neither the man nor the woman knows quite what to expect, and there is a lot of understandable trepidation on both sides. However, this often works out well because things turn out to be better than expected.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Because after all, most incompatibilities were eliminated by the matchmaker and due diligence confirmed the suitability of the prospective spouse.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Lower divorce rates</dt><dd>Many proponents of arranged marriages point to the 0% to 7% percent divorce rate for arranged marriages in contrast with a 55% divorce rate for the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference">[10]</sup> Although the numbers differ dramatically, this is an under-researched area and there are many possible explanations for the difference. For example, the divorce rate for love marriages in India is much lower than the divorce rate in the United States although the divorce rate for arranged marriages is even lower.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since September 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Perhaps the traditional culture of India exerts pressure on couples to stay married, even if the partners selected each other by a process of courtship.</dd></dl> <p><a name="Issues_common_to_both_arranged_and_love_marriage" id="Issues_common_to_both_arranged_and_love_marriage"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Issues common to both arranged and love marriage</span></h3> <ul><li>Although cultures have built several safeguards against fraud (such as the family's reputation being at stake), there are instances where a key fact is left out during the process of the marriage, only to be learned afterwards. An example might be if one of the spouses has a medical condition that is not disclosed before marriage. Although the marriage may not have occurred had that condition been disclosed prior to marriage, it is very difficult to leave afterwards and there may be no legal recourse.</li></ul> <ul><li>Parents and other relatives who have been involved in the marriage arrangements have an emotional investment in the success of the marriage and form a valuable support group to the couple<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>. If there are problems in the marriage, well-meaning elders may intervene to sort things out. Of course, this is a two-edged sword — outside interference can often make things worse between a couple.</li></ul> <p><a name="References" id="References"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline"><br /></span></h2>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-34796013639178057512008-03-28T12:39:00.000-07:002008-03-28T12:43:15.039-07:00Child marriage<h1 class="firstHeading">Child marriage</h1><!-- start content --> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-notice"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-style"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Small Child Brides in the lap of their guardians" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/83/Child_Marriage.JPG/180px-Child_Marriage.JPG" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="147" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Small Child Brides in the lap of their guardians</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Child marriage</b> usually refers to two separate social phenomena which are practiced in some societies. The first and more widespread practice is that of marrying a young child (generally defined as below the age of fifteen) to an adult. In practice this is almost always a young girl being married to a man.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>The second practice is a form of arranged marriage in which the parents of two children from different families arrange a future marriage. In this practice, the individuals who become betrothed often do not meet one another until the wedding ceremony, which occurs when they are both of a marriageable age. Which age this is differs by local custom. In most practicing cultures, this age is at or after the onset of puberty.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Child marriage is prevalent in many cultures throughout human history, but has gradually diminished since some countries started to urbanize, changing the ways of life for the people of these countries. An increase in the advocation of human rights, whether as women's rights or as children's rights, has caused the traditions of child marriage to decrease greatly as it was considered unfair and dangerous for the children. Today, child marriage is usually only practiced in <span class="mw-redirect">third world</span> countries, where cultural practices and traditions remain and have a strong impact on the people, and where the living standards and conditions still create a strong incentive for child marriage. For example, it is still common in rural parts of Pakistan.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Child marriages may have many purposes: The nobility of some cultures tend to use child marriage among different factions or states as a method to secure political ties between them. For example, the son or daughter of the royal family of a weaker power would sometimes be arranged to marry into the royal family of a stronger neighbouring power, thus preventing itself from being assimilated. In the lower classes, if they were fortunate, families could use child marriages as means to gain financial ties with wealthier people, ensuring their successions.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In child betrothals, a child's parents arrange a match with the parents of a child from another family (social standing, wealth and expected education all play a part), thus unilaterally determining the child's future at a young age. It is thought by adherents that physical attraction is not a suitable foundation upon which to build a marriage and a family. A separate consideration is the age at which the wedding, as opposed to the engagement, takes place.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Families are able to cement political and/or financial ties by having their children inter-marry. The betrothal is considered a binding contract upon the families and the children. The breaking of a betrothal can have serious consequences both for the families and for the betroven individuals themselves.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"><br /></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">United States</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">South Asia</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">India</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Pakistan</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Bangladesh</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">South East Asia</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Child Marriage Prevention Programs</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Asia</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Latin America</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Cross-Regional</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Africa" id="Africa"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Africa</span></h2> <p>Despite many countries enacting a marriageable age of 16-18, customary marriages are widespread. Poverty, tradition and conflict make the incidence of child marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa similar to South Asia.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In many tribal systems a man pays a dowry to the girl's family in order to marry. This in many parts of Africa decreases as a girl gets older. Even before puberty it is common for a married girl to leave her parents to be with her 'husband'. Many of the marriages therefore are poverty related, with parents seeking a dowry to feed, clothe, educate and house the rest of the family. A male child in these countries is still more likely to gain a full education, gain employment/pursue a working life and therefore they tend to marry later. In Mali the girl:boy ratio of marriage before age 18 is 72:1; in Kenya, 21:1.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>The various UN commissioned reports indicate that in many Sub-Saharan countries there is a high incidence of marriage among girls aged less than 15. Many governments have tended to overlook the particular problems which child marriage has resulted in, including obstetric fistulae, prematurity, childbirth mortality, <span class="mw-redirect">sexually transmitted diseases</span>, including cervical cancer, and malaria.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In parts of Ethiopia and Nigeria over 50% of girls are married before the age of 15. In parts of Mali 39% of girls are married before the age of 15. In Niger and Chad over 70% of girls are married before the age of 18.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In South Africa there are legal provisions made for respecting the marriage laws of traditional marriages, whereby a person might be married as young as 12 for females and 14 for males.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="United_States" id="United_States"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h2> <p>While child marriage is illegal in the United States, at least one religious group - the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, has allegedly practiced child marriage as part of its polygamy. Church leader Warren Jeffs was convicted of being an accomplice to rape of a minor due to this practice.</p> <p><a name="South_Asia" id="South_Asia"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">South Asia</span></h2> <p><a name="India" id="India"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">India</span></h3> <p>Child marriage has been illegal in India since the passing of the <i>Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.</i> In this Act, the term <i>child</i> refers to a male younger than twenty-one, or a female younger than eighteen. A marriage falls under the scope of this Act if either of the contracting parties meets its definition of child.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In an effort to curb the practice of child marriages the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh have passed laws that mandate the registration of all marriages in order to make it a valid marriage.</p> <p>Every year children are still married illegally in India. Most of the child marriages in India take place in rural villages and areas, that usually have little legal supervision. Over time, child marriage has become a social taboo, with the majority of Indians believing it to be wrong. However, mass marriages that involve children are frequently ignored by authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup></p> <p>According to “National Plan of Action for Children 2005”, (Published by Department of Women and Child Development of India) a goal has been setup to eliminate child marriage completely by 2010. This plan has proved to be successful, but it is still very difficult to monitor all children due to the sheer size of the Indian Subcontinent.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Pakistan" id="Pakistan"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"><br /></span><span class="mw-headline"></span></h3> <p>Child marriage has been restrained in Pakistan through the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> But still widely practiced in some areas through Vani and other ceremonies.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Bangladesh" id="Bangladesh"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Bangladesh</span></h3> <p>Over 40% of girls are married before reaching 15 years of age (approximately 45% according to the majority of recent surveys) in Bangladesh.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>The Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is making progress in increasing women's education and employment opportunities. This, combined with specific education about child marriage and cooperation with religious leaders should help to decrease child marriage.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since December 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="South_East_Asia" id="South_East_Asia"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">South East Asia</span></h2> <p><a name="Child_Marriage_Prevention_Programs" id="Child_Marriage_Prevention_Programs"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Child Marriage Prevention Programs</span></h2> <p>The programs are organized as follows:</p> <p><b>Implementing Organization</b>, <i>Program Name</i>, Location; (Time Frame).</p> <p>Brief Description</p> <p>Source</p> <p><a name="Asia" id="Asia"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Asia</span></h3> <p><b>Indian Institute of Young Inspirers</b>, <i>A Communication Strategy for the Promotion of Adolescent Reproductive Health</i>, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India; (2003-2005).</p> <p>This program developed innovative communication strategies for adolescents with an emphasis on sexuality, gender, violence and early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Mamta Health Institute for Mother and Child</b>, <i>Action Approach for Reduction of Early Marriage and Early Pregnancy in the State of Rajasthan</i>, Rajasthan, India; (2002-2005).</p> <p>This program sought to delay age at marriage and create an environment supportive of delayed first pregnancy through providing training on early marriage and early pregnancy (EMEP). It also created a newsletter for young people focusing on EMEP.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>BRAC</b>, <i>Adolescent Development Programme (ADP)</i>, Bangladesh; (2000 – ongoing).</p> <p>The ADP seeks to improve the quality of life of vulnerable adolescents, and to reduce child marriage through addressing child rights sensitization, child marriage, HIV/AIDS, involvement of parents and the community in girls’ participation in society, and other issues via life skills activities, non-formal education, community sensitization and income generation.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>BRAC</b>, <i>Adolescent Reproductive Health Education (ARHE) Program</i>, Bangladesh; (1995-ongoing).</p> <p>The ARHE creates a curriculum for boys and girls age 12 and older with no education that includes physical and mental changes during adolescence, pregnancy, guidance about age at marriage, STIs, gender issues, male and female roles in reproduction, and violence against women and girls.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>National Commission for Women</b>, <i>Amendments to Child Marriage Restraint Act</i>, India; (1992-ongoing).</p> <p>The National Commission for Women proposed amendments to the India’s Child Marriage Restraint Act including more stringent penalties for offenders and compulsory registration of all marriages. They organized anti-child marriage agitation in four states - Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Haryana Government</b>, <i>Apni Beti, Apna Dhan (My Daughter, My Pride)</i> , India; (1994-ongoing).</p> <p>The ABAD scheme entitles the mother of a newly-born girl-child to Rs. 500 and Rs. 2,500 per year, cashable only after the child is 18 years old. This program helps reduce infanticide and improve the status of girl children.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>The Government of Nepal, UNFPA</b>, <i>Arrange the Marriage of Your Daughter After 20 Years of Age poster</i>, Nepal, (1995).</p> <p>The government of Nepal created materials encouraging parents to delay marriage of their daughters, including posters educating adults about the negative consequences of early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Plan International – Nepal</b>, <i>Basic Life Options</i>, Nepal.</p> <p>The program educates adolescents about sexual health, reproduction, legal rights and risks such as early marriage and sexual exploitation. There are campaigns to register births to protect children against early marriage in the future.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>UNICEF, Pakistan Boy Scouts Association</b>, <i>Brothers Join Meena, Pakistan</i>, Pakistan.</p> <p>Through this program, each boy collects data from 10 neighboring households on health, sanitation and educational status. In return, the program provides information on various issues, including the importance of education for girls. They then monitor the progress of each household. The program empowers adolescent boys to promote and protect children’s rights, including the girl’s right to education – a key defense against early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>International Center for Research on Women (ICRW)</b>, <i>Development Initiative on Supporting Healthy Adolescents (DISHA)</i> , Bihar and Jharkhand, India; (2003-2005)</p> <p>This program helps increase access to family planning and reproductive health services for married and unmarried youth, delay marriage and childbearing, provide youth with alternatives to early marriage through enhanced livelihoods skills and options, and build the capacity of local NGOs to promote the reproductive health of young people.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Bangladesh Women's Health Coalition, Academy for Educational Development (AED), John Snow International (JSI)</b>, <i>Empowerment of Women Research Program</i>, Bangladesh; (2003 to 2005).</p> <p>This program focuses on empowering women and address topics such as delayed age at marriage, postponement of childbearing and improved economic opportunities. They use research on factors influencing decisions on timing of marriage and childbearing to develop national and local interventions.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO)</b>, <i>Family Welfare Programme</i>, India; (1993).</p> <p>TISCO sought to establish a model of corporate action to help young people become informed on sexual and reproductive health matters in order to prevent child marriage, premarital sex and deaths of young mothers. Income was generated for the project through performances of the CFI Drama Troupe consisting of unemployed young people.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Population Council, Child In Need Institute-Kolkata, Deepak Charitable Trust-Vadodara, International Institute for Population Sciences-Mumbai</b>, <i>First-time Parents Project</i>, India; (2003-2005).</p> <p>The project organized activities providing reproductive health information to married girls, their partners and influential adults and empowering young, married women through group formation.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Child Survival India</b>, <i>Gender Sensitization Programme</i>, India.</p> <p>A gender sensitization program in schools and the community that promotes community discussions and debates on gender inequalities, including early marriage, in order to find effective solutions.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>PCI</b>, <i>Hum Raahi (Come Along With Me) soap opera</i>, India; (1991-1994).</p> <p>A television serial promoted women’s equality and development, encouraging education, delayed marriage, the equal value of girl children and other health issues to an estimated 100 million viewers.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Government of Indonesia</b>, <i>Indonesia’s National Marriage Act</i>, Indonesia; (1974).</p> <p>Indonesia’s National Marriage Act made marriage registration in parts of the country dependent on evidence that the marriage is neither forced nor polygamous and on attendance at an educational session on reproduction.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Department of Foreign Technical and Economic Cooperation of Dingxi Prefecture, Culture Department of Dingxi Prefecture</b>, <i>Integration Population Education Programs of Rural Youth in China</i>, China; (1994-1995).</p> <p>Pilot school projects reported that following exposure to population education, students who had agreed to postpone marriage were sticking to their agreement.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Institute for Health Management, Pachod (IHMP), International Center for Research on Women (ICRW)</b>, <i>Life Skills Intervention on Age at Marriage in Maharashtra</i>, Rural Maharashtra, India; (1999-present).</p> <p>The program led community-based life skills intervention to delay marriage, improve health and social status, promote self development and increase girls’ self-confidence.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Myrada, Plan International</b>, <i>Madakasira Project</i>, India; (unknown-2009).</p> <p>Organized children’s groups in one community to address child marriage and bonded labor.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), EngenderHealth, New ERA Ltd., BP Memorial Health Foundation</b>, <i>Nepal Adolescent Project (NAP)</i>, Nepal; (1998 to 2003).</p> <p>An “Information, Education and Communication” (IEC) program included discussions on reproductive health topics for youth and community fairs to provide information to young people to increase adolescents’ knowledge of reproductive health and to change social norms around early marriage and childbearing.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Pathfinder International</b>, <i>PRACHAR Project: Promoting Change in the Reproductive Behavior of Youth</i>, Bihar, India; (2001-2005). The program conducted trainings and community meetings to teach adolescents about STIs, HIV/AIDS, and delaying and spacing children with the plan of improving reproductive health and changing traditional customs of early marriage. The program teaches families and respected elders/leaders about benefits of<br /></p> <p><b>The Human Rights Law Network (HRLN) of the Socio Legal Information Centre (SLIC), MacArthur Foundation</b>, <i>Reproductive and Sexual Rights of Young People in India</i>, India; (2003-ongoing).</p> <p>This is a program of education and dissemination of information on gender-just laws and the promotion of judicial recognition of reproductive health as a part of the fundamental right to health, in support of legal initiative to discourage early marriage in India.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Government of Sri Lanka</b>, <i>Sri Lanka Child Marriage Legislation</i>, Sri Lanka; (1995)</p> <p>Legislation was passed that was successful in raising marriage age by driving legislative reforms requiring that all marriages be registered and that consent of both marriage partners be recorded. Specific cases of non-consensual marriages arranged by parents was deemed invalid.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Government of Bangladesh, World Bank</b>, <i>The Female Secondary School Assistance Project (FSSAP)</i>, Bangladesh; (1993-ongoing).</p> <p>This program seeks to increase enrollment of girls in secondary school and delay marriage by addressing financial and other constraints for attending school. Parents are required to sign a bond that daughters will not marry before age 18.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>UNICEF, BRAC, the Centre for Mass Education in Science (CMES)</b>, <i>The Kishori Abhijan project</i>, Bangladesh; (2001-2004).</p> <p>This program provided girls with livelihood and leadership skills, peer education sessions on early marriage and reproductive health. Communities, parents and adolescent boys were sensitized to girls’ needs and rights. The program also sponsored nation-wide advocacy campaigns.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Sajeda Amin, Ian Diamond, Ruchira T. Naved, and Margaret Newby</b>, <i>Transition to Adulthood of Female Garment-factory Workers in Bangladesh</i>, Bangladesh; (1998).</p> <p>This project conducted research to determine the effect of working in garment industry on female workers, including effect on age of marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Government of Uttar Pradesh</b>, <i>UP Population Policy 2000</i>, India; (2000-2016).</p> <p>This program increases awareness about legal age at marriage using electronic media for dissemination. It seeks to ensure that panchayats maintain records of all marriages in their jurisdiction. It uses women’s groups and religious and community leaders to change values and attitudes about child marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><a name="Africa_2" id="Africa_2"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Africa</span></h3> <p><b>CARE International – Eritrea, Haben</b>, <i>A Community-based Prevention and Response Program for Gender-based Violence</i>, Gash Barka Zone of Eritrea; (2001-2004).</p> <p>Local clinics established support groups for women to address gender equity, domestic violence, and Female Genital Cutting. Public awareness programs incorporated community-based and mass media awareness-raising activities. Early marriage was not originally an objective, but was raised as a concern by community members and was later incorporated into programming objectives.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Population Council, Adolescent Health and Information Projects, Federation of Muslim Women Associations of Nigeria</b>, <i>Addressing Child Marriage</i> in Northern Nigeria<i>, Nigeria; (2005-2009).</i></p> <p>Collaborating with religious, female and community leaders, the intervention raises awareness and promotes dialogue on child marriage through existing community forums and radio spots.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>World Learning for International Development</b>, <i>Basic Education Strategic Objective (BESO II) Community-Government Partnership Program (CGPP)</i>, Ethiopia; (2002-ongoing).</p> <p>The program seeks to promote gender equity, including ongoing campaigns against early marriage and female circumcision. It promotes the value of education for girls and involves men in advocating for delaying age at marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Population Council, Ethiopian Ministry of Youth and Sports</b>, <i>Berhane Hewan</i>, Amhara region, Ethiopia; 2004-2008.</p> <p>The program promotes functional literacy, life skills and reproductive health education. Economic incentives (receiving a goat) encourage families to allow their daughters to participate in girls’ groups and to remain in school.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Christian Children’s Fund (CCF)</b>, <i>Christian Children’s Fund of Ethiopia program</i>, Ethiopia; (ongoing).</p> <p>The program raises community awareness around the physical dangers of child marriage.</p> <p><b>Christian Children’s Fund (CCF)</b>, <i>Christian Children’s Fund of Uganda program</i>, Uganda; (ongoing).</p> <p>Working with communities to combat the practice of forcing girls into marriage with men who have raped them due to the belief that they are “spoiled.”</p> <p><b>Christian Children’s Fund (CCF)</b>, <i>Christian Children’s Fund of Zambia program</i>, Zambia; (ongoing).</p> <p>Focus on bringing girls back to school, promoting reproductive health education in schools and delaying marriage.</p> <p><b>World Learning for International Development (WLID), USAID</b>, <i>Community Action for Girls' Education (CAGE)</i>, Benin; (2001-2004).</p> <p>This program rescued trafficked girls and girls in danger of early marriages. It advocated for girls’ schooling and enabled family and community dialogues on gender equality and early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>The Association for the Protection of the Environment (APE)</b>, <i>Egypt’s Maqattam garbage settlement</i>, Egypt; (1995).</p> <p>The program taught girls rug-making, paper recycling, and embroidery projects. A sum of E£500 (US$148) was offered to any girl who deferred her marriage until age 18, and who entered marriage of her own free will.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health’s Center for Communication Programs / Health Communication Partnership – Egypt Field Office, The Academy for Educational Development (AED)</b>, <i>Family Planning Project - Egypt</i>, Egypt; (1988-1993).</p> <p>The program was a mass multimedia program that targeted young married women to address family planning issues. It focused on increasing communication between spouses, promoting male responsibility and reducing early marriage. It used 17 – 50 minute TV or radio drama episodes, contests, music videos and soap operas.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><br /><b>Population Council, PATH Kenya, Kendu Adventist Hospital</b>, <i>Highlighting Marital Risk and Promoting Premarital Voluntary Counseling and Testing in Nyanza</i>, Kenya; (2005-2008).</p> <p>This project is a large-scale educational campaign on dangers of early marriage and promoting Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) for HIV among newly married couples and those considering marriage. It uses community theater, radio broadcasts and religious leaders to raise awareness. The project demonstrated local demand for increasing age of marriage by building on a meeting of religious leaders.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>CARE International UK</b>, <i>Integrated Women’s Health and Empowerment Program (IWEP)</i>, Gash Barka Zone of Eritrea; (2006-2008).</p> <p>The project is designed to strengthen coping mechanisms of women-headed households in poor, conflict-affected communities in Eritrea. It raises awareness about reproductive and sexual health, HIV/AIDS, female genital mutilation and early marriage. It aims to strengthen relevant national support structures and existing services.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Save the Children Egypt, Population Council</b>, <i>ISHRAQ project</i>, Egypt; (2001-2004).</p> <p>This program worked to improve life opportunities for rural out-of-school girls, ages 13-15, by improving literacy, recreational opportunities, livelihood skills, health practices and mobility; positively influencing social norms about girls; improving local and national support for girl-friendly policies; and developing positive attitudes of communities and families toward educating girls. The efforts reduced acceptance of early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Moroccan government</b>, <i>King of Morocco Calls for Fundamental Reform in Family Law</i>, Morocco; (2003).</p> <p>Morocco’s new family code raised the minimum age of marriage for girls, making it the same age as for boys. The government also organized a large-scale media campaign to raise awareness of the new law and encourage behavior change.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Christian Children's Fund (CCF)</b>, <i>Naningoi Girls’ Boarding School</i>, Kenya; (1999-ongoing).</p> <p>This program seeks to rescue underage Maasai girls from early marriage and enroll them in formal studies instead.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>The Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA)</b>, <i>New Horizons Program</i>, Egypt; (1994-2004).</p> <p>This was a non-formal education program for girls. Girls were given 100 sessions of life skills training and reproductive health knowledge, including the issue of marriage. It was implemented through 365 NGOs and youth centers.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Family Health Options Kenya (formerly Family Planning Association of Kenya), Plan International Kenya, Programme for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH), Kenyan Ministry of Education and Health</b>, <i>Options Project for Improving the Status of Women</i>, Kenya.</p> <p>This program identifies girls married at an early age and lobbies to have marriages dissolved; and provides shelter and education for girls released from forced marriage. It raises community awareness through information, education and communication (IEC) materials.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls</b>, <i>Ouagadougou Declaration on Early and Forced Marriage</i>, Burkina Faso, Ghana, The Gambia, Mali, Nigeria and Sudan; (2003).</p> <p>This declaration calls upon governments to end child marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>The Futures Group, USAID</b>, <i>POLICY Project</i>, Malawi; (2002-2004).</p> <p>This project reviewed all HIV-related laws and policies, and proposed amendments. It lobbied with the law commission and parliament to change the legal age of marriage to16.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Nike Foundation; Population Council; United Nations Foundation; United Nations Population Foundation (UNFPA); and the Ethiopian Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture</b>, <i>Preventing Early Marriage in Ethiopia</i>, Ethiopia.</p> <p>In rural areas, girls receive non-formal education and health information and services. Open dialogue encourages community members to expand traditional options for girls, including delaying marriage. In urban slums, the program aims to promote safety and social support for girls.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Tostan, Senegal</b>, <i>Program on the Abandonment of FGC and Early Marriage</i>, Senegal; (1982-ongoing).</p> <p>A holistic basic education program where over 12,000 villagers attended regular classes on democracy, human rights, problem-solving, hygiene and health. Training in implementing practical development activities follows, involving all community members and leading to declarations against female genital cutting (FGC) and early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Coalition of Nigerian NGOs</b>, <i>Role of NGOs in Implementing the Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA)</i>, Nigeria; (1995-2005).</p> <p>The NGOs pushed for legislation (Child Rights Bill) to outlaw marriage before the age of 18 and to ensure that girls who have babies during their school years continue their education.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Creative Centre for Community Mobilisation (CRECCOM), USAID</b>, <i>Social Mobilization Campaign for Educational Quality (SMC-EQ)</i>, Malawi; (1998-2004).</p> <p>The program used a social mobilization approach to mobilize individuals and communities to support education, particularly for girls. It also included a message about delaying marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Pugsada</b>, <i>Support Centres for Girl Brides in Burkina Faso</i>, Burkina Faso; (1998).</p> <p>Puksata, a local NGO, works with three Catholic religious centers that shelter girls who have run away from forced or early marriage. Puksata works with the centers to provide the girls with vocational training and mediates between the families and the girls.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Population Council, K-Rep Development Agency (KDA)</b>, <i>Tap and Reposition Youth (TRY)</i>, Kenya; (1998-2005).</p> <p>The project hopes to ascertain whether the experience of running a business can alter a girl’s self-image and her relationships with others. Reproductive health training is included as a component of the project.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>World Vision Ethiopia</b>, <i>The Adjibar Safe Motherhood Project</i>, Ethiopia.</p> <p>The project works in collaboration with the local government, schools, community and influential religious leaders on all aspects of safe motherhood, including: education on the harms of early marriage, family planning, HIV/AIDS education, and pre and post-natal care.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Oxfam Great Britain, government of Kenya</b>, <i>The Mobile School Project</i>, Kenya.</p> <p>This is a non-formal education program for girls not attending school that led to a fall in early marriage and helped women assert themselves.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Communication for Change (C4C), American Refugee Committee (ARC)</b>, <i>Through Our Eyes Project</i>, Guinea and Liberia; (2006).</p> <p>In this community media project, audiences watch videos, discuss themes raised in them and share personal stories. One video covers forced marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Pathfinder International</b>, <i>Women's and Girl's Empowerment Project</i>, Ethiopia.</p> <p>Working with religious leaders, and organizational partners, such as the Ethiopian Women’s Lawyers Association to address AIDS and change cultural practices, including early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>Plan International</b>, Malawi.</p> <p>Community sensitization and training on children’s rights, and developed a district-level child protection policy. They also assisted in lobbying for bills on increasing the age of marriage and birth registration.</p> <p>Sources:</p> <p><b>Plan International – Niger</b>, Niger.</p> <p>This project works with village leaders to reinforce importance of girls’ education and school youth programs. On the national level, it works with Ministry of Social Affairs to implement the Code for the Child to discourage early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>The Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital, the Ethiopian Women Lawyers Association (EWLA)</b>, Ethiopia.</p> <p>The hospital has a joint program with EWLA to advise patients of their rights. Hospital outreach centers alert women's groups in the provinces to the dangers of early marriage and childbirth. EWLA campaigns for observance of the legal marriage age.</p> <p>Sources:<br /></p> <p><a name="Latin_America" id="Latin_America"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Latin America</span></h3> <p><b>Population Council</b>, <i>Creating Opportunities for Mayan Adolescent Girls</i>, Guatemala; (2004-ongoing).</p> <p>This project supports schooling for girls and increasing livelihood skills. Girls meet weekly for life skills, financial literacy, functional literacy, sports and possibly microfinance activities, all aimed at delaying marriage.</p> <p>Sources: </p> <p><a name="Cross-Regional" id="Cross-Regional"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Cross-Regional</span></h3> <p><b>UNICEF</b>, <i>Meena Initiative (South Asia) and the Sara Adolescent Girl Communication Initiative (East and Southern Africa)</i>, South Asia, Eastern Africa and Southern Africa; (1995-1999).</p> <p>The young cartoon heroine of a multimedia package is a catalyst for discussion on the importance of staying in school, HIV/AIDS, domestic workload, FGM/FGC and early marriage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><b>UNFPA, UNIFEM, UNICEF, the Population Council, International Planned Parenthood Federation</b>, Bangladesh, Ethiopia and India.</p> <p>This is a special project to improve social and economic opportunities for adolescent girls by producing evidence-based strategies to find feasible alternatives to child marriage. It includes mobilization of community and opinion leaders.</p> <p>Sources:<br /></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-76732423507389078992008-03-28T12:35:00.000-07:002008-03-28T12:37:17.249-07:00Islamic marital jurisprudence<h1 class="firstHeading">Islamic marital jurisprudence</h1><!-- start content --> <p>In Islamic law, marriage is a legal bond and social contract between a man and a woman as prompted by the <span class="mw-redirect">Shari'a</span>. There are two types of marriages mentioned in the Qur'an, the Nikah in verse 4:4 and the <span class="mw-redirect">Nikah Mut'ah</span> in verse 4:24.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of marriage</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nikah</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Nikah Mut'ah</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Who may be married?</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Other religions</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Restricted relations</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Age limits and arranged marriages</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Adulterers</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Other</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Mahr</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Islamic Marriage Contract</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Walima</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Behavior within marriage</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rights and obligations of spouses</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sexuality</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Gender roles</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Childrearing</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Adoption</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Divorce</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Types_of_marriage" id="Types_of_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Types of marriage</span></h2> <p><a name="Nikah" id="Nikah"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Nikah</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Nikah</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Nikah (Arabic: نكاح, literally: <i>contract</i><sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference">[1]</sup>) is the first, and most common form of marriage for Muslims; described in the Qur'an in 4:4.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A Muslim bride signing the nikkah nama or marriage certificate." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/68/Nikah_003.jpg/180px-Nikah_003.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="240" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A Muslim bride signing the <b>nikkah nama</b> or marriage certificate.</div> </div> </div> <p>Regulations:</p> <ul><li>It is aimed to be permanent, but can be terminated by husband engaging in the Talaq (divorce) process or the wife seeking a divorce.</li><li>The couple inherit from each other.</li><li>A legal contract is signed when entering the marriage.</li><li>The husband must pay for the wife's expenses.</li></ul> <p>If a divorce date is determined in the Nikah contract:</p> <ul><li>In Sunni jurisprudence, the contract is voided.</li><li>In Shia jurisprudence, the contract is transformed into a <span class="mw-redirect">Nikah Mut'ah</span>.</li></ul> <p>Requirement of witnesses:</p> <ul><li><span class="mw-redirect">Sunni</span>: Three</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Shia</span>: None<sup><span class="external autonumber">[1]</span></sup>.</li></ul> <p><a name="Nikah_Mut.27ah" id="Nikah_Mut.27ah"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Nikah Mut'ah</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Nikah Mut'ah</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <p><span class="mw-redirect">Nikah Mut'ah</span> (Arabic: نكاح متعة,, temporary marriage<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup>), (often referred as "fixed-time marriage" since many of these marriages have a time limit), is the second form of marriage although not explicitly stated in the Qur'an in 4:24 but one can infer. There is controversy on the Islamic legality of this type of marriage, since Sunnis believe it was abrogated by Muhammad, while Shias believe it was forbidden by Umar and hence that ban may be ignored since Umar had no authority to do so. The Qur'an itself doesn't mention any cancellation of the institution. Nikah Mut'ah sometimes has a preset time period to the marriage, traditionally the couple do not inherit from each other, the man usually is not responsible for the economic welfare of the woman, and she usually may leave her home at her own discretion. Nikah Mut'ah also does not count towards a maximum of wives (four according to the Qur'an). The woman still is given her mahr, and the woman must still observe the iddah, a period of four months at the end of the marriage where she is not permitted to marry in the case she may have become pregnant before the divorce took place. This maintains the proper lineage of children.</p> <p><a name="Who_may_be_married.3F" id="Who_may_be_married.3F"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Who may be married?</span></h2> <p><span class="mw-redirect">Polygamy in Islam</span> is permitted under a few conditions. Women are not allowed to engage in polyandry, whereas men are allowed to engage in polygyny.</p> <p><a name="Other_religions" id="Other_religions"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Other religions</span></h3> <p>Traditionally, Muslim jurists hold that Muslim women may only enter into marriage with Muslim men. The Qur'an explicitly allows Muslim men to marry chaste women of the People of the Book, a term which includes <span class="mw-redirect">Jews</span>, and <span class="mw-redirect">Christians</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-interfaith_3-0" class="reference">[4]</sup></p> <p>However, these traditions do not go unchallenged. An examination of the text in the long standing reference cited in footnote #4, a fatwa from the website of the Muslim jurist and scholar, Khaled Abou El Fadl, argues that there is no direct command from the Quran or the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad requiring Muslim women to limit themselves to marriage with Muslim men, nor forbidding them from marriage with men of the Book - Christians and Jews. He states, "All jurists agreed that a Muslim man or woman may not marry a mushrik [one who associates partners with God--there is a complex and multi-layered discourse on who is to be considered a mushrik, but we will leave this for a separate discussion]. However, because of al-Ma'ida verse 5, there is an exception in the case of a Muslim man marrying a kitabiyya. There is no express prohibition in the Qur'an or elsewhere about a Muslim woman marrying a kitabi. However, the jurists argued that since express permission was given to men, by implication women must be prohibited from doing the same. The argument goes: If men needed to be given express permission to marry a kitabiyya, women needed to be given express permission as well, but since they were not given any such permission then they must be barred from marrying a kitabi.</p> <p>. . . In all honesty, personally, I am not convinced that the evidence prohibiting Muslim women from marrying a kitabi is very strong. Muslim jurists took a very strong position on this matter--many of them going as far as saying if a Muslim woman marries a kitabi she is as good as an apostate. I think, and God knows best, that this position is not reasonable and the evidence supporting it is not very strong."</p> <p>He also goes on to cite the often conveniently overlooked fact that the same jurists who ruled that Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men also considered marriage between Muslim men and non-Muslim women in the west to be far less than undesirable: "Importantly, the Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi'i jurists held that it is reprehensible (makruh) for Muslim men to marry a kitabiyya if they live in non-Muslim countries. They argued that in non-Muslim countries, mothers will be able to influence the children the most. Therefore, there is a high likelihood that the children will not grow up to be good Muslims unless both parents are Muslim. Some jurists even went as far as saying that Muslim men are prohibited from marrying a kitabiyya if they live in non-Muslim countries." <sup id="cite_ref-interfaith_3-1" class="reference">[4]</sup> This matter remains unsettled in the west where Muslim men and women are free to marry non-Muslims, and there are those who do without repercussions from Muslim jurists.</p> <p><a name="Restricted_relations" id="Restricted_relations"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Restricted relations</span></h3> <p>Marriage is forbidden between certain blood relations (although not between cousins) and between those individuals who were both breastfed by the same woman (see <span class="mw-redirect">wetnurse</span>). See also <i>mahram</i> for a fuller discussion of unmarriageable kin; Muslims are free to marry anyone not in these prohibited classes.</p> <blockquote> <p>Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet forbade that a woman should be married to a man along with her paternal aunt or with her maternal aunt (at the same time). Az-Zuhri (the sub-narrator) said: There is a similar order for the paternal aunt of the father of one's wife, for 'Ursa told me that 'Aisha said, "What is unlawful because of blood relations, is also unlawful because of the corresponding foster suckling relations." Sahih Bukhari: Volume 7, Book 62, Number 46</p> </blockquote> <blockquote> <p>Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: It was said to the Prophet, "Won't you marry the daughter of Hamza?" He said, "She is my foster niece (brother's daughter)." Volume 7, Book 62, Number 37</p> </blockquote> <p><a name="Age_limits_and_arranged_marriages" id="Age_limits_and_arranged_marriages"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Age limits and arranged marriages</span></h3> <p>No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage. An engagement may be arranged between families for their children, but Islamic requirements for a legal marriage include the requirement that both parties are able to give informed legal consent (<i>ijab-o-qubul</i>). A marriage without this consent or performed under coercion is considered void and may be annulled on those grounds.</p> <p>It is Islamic tradition that a wedding not commence until both parties are fit for sexual relations.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup></p> <p><a name="Adulterers" id="Adulterers"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Adulterers</span></h3> <p>Islam does not give adulterous men the right to marry a chaste woman and nor may an adulterous woman marry a chaste man, except if the matter has not gone to court and the two purify themselves of this sin by sincere repentance.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference">[6]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference">[7]</sup> "Women of purity are for men of purity, and men of purity are for women of purity "(Quran 24:26)</p> <p><a name="Other" id="Other"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Other</span></h3> <p>A woman or man may propose marriage directly or through an intermediary (matchmaker).</p> <p>Recognition or celebration of same sex marriage is completely unjustified in the view of Islamic law. In Islam, homosexuality is forbidden by Qur'anic injunctions and Islamic tradition.</p> <p>A marriage is registered by the <i>Qadhi</i> who performs the short ceremony.</p> <p>Unlike the wedding ring in Western societies, there is no visible sign worn to show a woman or a man is married. However, some Muslims have found the wedding ring to be a non-religious tradition and have used a ring.</p> <p><a name="Mahr" id="Mahr"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Mahr</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Mahr</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Mahr is a mandatory gift given by the groom to the bride. Unlike a bride price, however, it is given directly to the bride and not to her father. Although the gift is often money, it can be anything agreed upon by bride and groom such as a house or viable business that is put in her name and can be run and owned entirely by her if she chooses.</p> <p><a name="Islamic_Marriage_Contract" id="Islamic_Marriage_Contract"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Islamic Marriage Contract</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Islamic Marriage Contract</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The purpose, rules, and regulations of the <span class="mw-redirect">Islamic Marriage Contract</span>. A Muslim marriage is not a 'sacrament', but a simple, legal agreement in which either partner is free to include conditions. These conditions are stipulated in a written contract. Violating any of the conditions stipulated in this contract is legal grounds for a partner seeking divorce. The first part of the Nikah, 'marriage ceremony' is the signing of the marriage contract itself.</p> <p>Various traditions may differ in how Nikah is performed because different groups accept different texts as authoritative. Therefore, Sunnis will likely accept Bukhari Hadith while Shia will have their own collections, for example Furu al-Kafi, thus producing different procedures. This contract requires the consent of both parties. There is a tradition, outside of the religion, in some Muslim countries to pre-arrange a marriage for young children. However, the marriage still requires consent for the wedding to legally take place.</p> <p>Divorce is not forbidden as a last resort, however the dissolution of the contract, Talaq, is often described as the most disliked of permissible things in Islam and should be used as a last resort.</p> <p><a name="Walima" id="Walima"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Walima</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Walima</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The Walima is a dinner given by the groom's side of the family to celebrate the welcoming of the bride to the family. It is a strong sunnah (something the prophet Muhammad did) and it is recommended to be held on the earliest possible day after consummation as possible.</p> <p><a name="Behavior_within_marriage" id="Behavior_within_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Behavior within marriage</span></h2> <p><a name="Rights_and_obligations_of_spouses" id="Rights_and_obligations_of_spouses"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Rights and obligations of spouses</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Rights and obligations of spouses in Islam</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Islam advocates a role-based relationship between husband and wife.</p> <blockquote> <p>Narrated Ibn 'Umar: The Prophet said, "All of you are guardians and are responsible for your wards. The ruler is a guardian and the man is a guardian of his family; the lady is a guardian and is responsible for her husband's house and his offspring; and so all of you are guardians and are responsible for your wards." Sahih Bukhari:Volume 7, Book 62, Number 128</p> </blockquote> <p>It puts the main responsibility of earning over the husband. Both are obliged to fulfill the other's sexual needs. Husbands are asked to be kind to their wives and wives are asked to be obedient to their husbands. However, when the wife's clearly rebellious behavior is preventing mediation between the two, the husband shall urge his wife to mend her ways, and if that is unsuccessful, to refuse to share their bed with her to express the seriousness of the disagreement, and finally, husbands are allowed to admonish their wives by light physical exertion. The books of fiqh describe this physical expression as not leaving any mark on her body, not upon her face, and with the same strength as would be exerted through striking with a toothbrush. This is all assuming the husband is in the right, and such mediative tactics will prevail in restoring the correct understanding of the man. If, however, the man is in the wrong, these mediative tactics will have no success, and that is proof that the man need to mend his approach towards the disagreement. These are last resort tactics that the husband, if he his wise, should use rarely in order to maintain his credibility.</p> <p><a name="Sexuality" id="Sexuality"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Sexuality</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Sexuality in Islam</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-merge"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <br /></td> <td class="ambox-text"><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>Sexuality in Islam is largely described by the Qur'an, Islamic tradition, and religious leaders both past and present as being confined to marital relationships between men and women. While most traditions discourage celibacy, all encourage strict chastity and modesty with regards to any relationships across gender lines, holding forth that intimacy as perceived within Islam -- encompassing a swath of life more broad than strictly sex -- is to be reserved for marriage.</p> <blockquote> <p>Narrated 'Abdullah: We were with the Prophet while we were young and had no wealth whatever. So Allah's Apostle said, "O young people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual desire." Volume 7, Book 62, Number 4:</p> </blockquote> <p>While adulterous relationships are strictly forbidden, permissible sexual relationships within marriage are described in Islamic sources as great wells of love and closeness for the couple involved. Sexual relationship between married couples are even source of rewards from God as doing the oppositie i.e. satisfying sexual needs through illicit means has punishment. Specific occasions -- most notably daytime fasting and menstruation -- are times forbidden for intercourse, though not for other ways of touching and being close to one another. Anal sex with one's wife is also strictly prohibited.</p> <p><a name="Gender_roles" id="Gender_roles"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Gender roles</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Gender roles in Islam</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>In Islamic theology, both sexes are generally considered to be equal in value and differences between the sexes are recognized, resulting in different rights, obligations, and distinct roles.</p> <p>Generally, Muslims expect women to be home-makers and caregivers to their children, although early Islamic scholars decreed that there was no requirement for them to do either. It is generally considered a good thing if they are educated as well. Cultural interpretations of Islam support the traditional division of labour whereby women assume the main responsibility for the home while men are responsible for supporting their wives. Motherhood is seen as one of the most important roles in society. Muslim wives and mothers should be granted the respect due to all women for the struggles and sacrifices they make for the sake of their families. Mother has been given three times higher status over father. In some interpretations of Islam, Muslim women may seek a higher education, work outside the home or volunteer their services to benefit the community as long as their primary responsibilities are taken care of, they have the permission of their husbands and they do not compromise their faith in doing so (i.e. jobs that require them to dress in a fashion that is contrary to the Sharia -- Hijab).</p> <p><a name="Childrearing" id="Childrearing"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Childrearing</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Islam and children</i></div> </dd></dl> <p><a name="Adoption" id="Adoption"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Adoption</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Islamic adoption</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Islam has its own rules of regulations regarding adoption, with distinct rules and regulations prior to and after the legal adoption. Muslims are allowed to adopt as long as they do not change the name of the child they adopt. Muslims are usually required to let any such children continue the lineage of their birth parents, and are not allowed to make the adopted children to continue the adopted parents' lineage.</p> <p><a name="Divorce" id="Divorce"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Divorce</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Talaq (Nikah)</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The typical way to end a marraiage is through Talaq, a legal Islamic divorce. Divorce is very disliked in Islaam. However, it <i>is</i> still legal and can be practiced.</p> <p>In Shia Islam, a divorce is a procedure that is threefold</p> <ul><li>Initiation - The divorce is announced publicly (triple talaq is illegal)</li><li>Reconciliation - the couple will try to reconcile differences</li><li>Completion - With two witnesses and after the Iddah period has expired, the divorce is complete.</li></ul> <p>In Sunni Islam there is Triple talaq, it is a (controversial) practice in which the couple instantly divorces by declaring the intention three times and thus making sexual relations between them haram for each other. However Islamic tradition maintains that divorce cannot be final until after a period called <span class="new">'Iddah</span>, that is the period of three months or more specifically three <span class="mw-redirect">menstrual</span> cycles, so that it is evident that the wife is not pregnant. Furthermore, after the divorce is final the couple may not remarry until the wife has married and divorced another.</p> <blockquote> <p>Narrated Nafi: Ibn 'Umar bin Al-Khattab divorced his wife during her menses. Allah's Apostle ordered him to take her back till she became clean, and when she got another period while she was with him, she should wait till she became clean again and only then, if he wanted to divorce her, he could do so before having sexual relations with her. And that is the period Allah has fixed for divorcing women. Whenever 'Abdullah (bin 'Umar) was asked about that, he would say to the questioner, "If you divorced her thrice, she is no longer lawful for you unless she marries another man (and the other man divorces her in his turn).' Ibn 'Umar further said, 'Would that you (people) only give one or two divorces, because the Prophet has ordered me so." Sahih Bukhari:Volume 7, Book 63, Number 249</p> </blockquote> <blockquote> <p>Narrated Yunus Ibn Jubair: Ibn 'Umar divorced his wife while she was having her menses. 'Umar asked the Prophet who said, "Order him (your son) to take her back, and then divorced her before her period of the 'Iddah has elapsed." I asked Ibn 'Umar, "Will that divorce (during the menses) be counted?" He replied, "If somebody behaves foolishly (will his foolishness be an excuse for his misbehavior)?" Volume 7, Book 63, Number 250</p> </blockquote> <p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"><br /></span><span class="mw-headline"></span></h2>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7895570575296268037.post-88189511136441614912008-03-28T12:00:00.000-07:002008-03-28T12:03:39.533-07:00Marriage<h1 class="firstHeading">Marriage</h1><!-- start content --> <div class="dablink">"Matrimony" redirects here. For the sacrament or liturgical rite in Christianity, see Christian views of marriage.</div> <div class="dablink">“Spouse” redirects here. For more information on the role, see Husband or Wife.</div> <div class="dablink">For the record label, see Marriage Records.</div> <table style="border: 1px solid rgb(190, 190, 190); float: right; margin-left: 0.5em; width: 180px;" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: center; line-height: 95%; background-color: rgb(212, 221, 233);"><b>Close relationships</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td style=""> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5f/KarenWhimseyValentineMain.png/90px-KarenWhimseyValentineMain.png" border="0" height="51" width="90" /></span></span></div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0px; background-color: rgb(244, 251, 255); text-align: center;"> <p><small><span style="white-space: nowrap;">Affinity •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Attachment •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Bonding •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Casual •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Cohabitation •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Compersion •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Concubinage •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Courtship •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Divorce •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Dower, dowry, and bride price •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Family •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Friendship •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Husband •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Infatuation •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Intimacy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Jealousy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Limerence •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Love •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;"><strong class="selflink">Marriage</strong> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Monogamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Nonmonogamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Office romance •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-redirect">Partner</span> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Passion •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Pederasty •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Platonic love •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Polyamory •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Polyfidelity •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Polygamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Psychology of monogamy •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Relationship abuse •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Romance •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Separation •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Sexuality •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Wedding •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Widowhood •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap;">Wife</span></small> <span class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" style="white-space: nowrap; font-weight: normal; font-size: xx-small;">This box: <span title="View this template" style="">view</span> <span style="font-size: 80%;">•</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184);" title="Discussion about this template">talk</span> <span style="font-size: 80%;">•</span> <span class="external text"><span style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184);" title="You can edit this template. Please use the preview button before saving.">edit</span></span></span> </p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table class="infobox" style="font-size: 95%; text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" border="0" height="102" width="100" /></span></td> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Family law</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Entering into marriage</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Prenuptial agreement · <strong class="selflink">Marriage</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Common-law marriage</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Same-sex marriage</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Legal states similar to marriage</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Cohabitation · Civil union</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Domestic partnership</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Registered partnership</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Putative marriage</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Dissolution of marriage</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Annulment · Divorce · Alimony</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Issues affecting children</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Paternity · Legitimacy · Adoption</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Legal guardian · Ward</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Emancipation of minors</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Parental responsibility</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Contact (including Visitation)</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Residence in English law</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Custody · Child support</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Areas of possible legal concern</th> </tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-redirect">Spousal abuse</span> · Child abuse</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Child abduction</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Adultery · <span class="mw-redirect">Bigamy</span> · Incest</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="background: rgb(102, 204, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span class="mw-redirect">Conflict of Laws</span> Issues</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Marriage · Nullity · Divorce</td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Marriage</b> or <b>wedlock</b> is an institution in which interpersonal relationships (usually intimate and sexual) are sanctioned with governmental, social, or religious recognition. It is often created by a contract or through civil processes. Civil marriage is the legal concept of marriage as a governmental institution.</p> <p>Marriage may take many forms: for example, a union between one man and one woman as husband and wife; polygamy—in which a person takes more than one spouse (marriage partner)—is common in many societies<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch_0-0" class="reference">[1]</sup>; and, in some jurisdictions<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference">[2]</sup> and denominations, a same-sex marriage unites people of the same sex. (Other jurisdictions may not allow this, but instead provide civil unions conferring some or all of the benefits of married status.)</p> <p>People marry for many reasons, but usually one or more of the following: legal, social and economic stability; the formation of a family unit; <span class="mw-redirect">procreation</span> and the education and nurturing of children; legitimizing <span class="mw-redirect">sexual relations</span>; public declaration of love; or to obtain citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference">[3]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[4]</sup></p> <p>A marriage is often declared by a wedding ceremony,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[5]</sup> which may be performed either by a religious officiant, by a <span class="mw-redirect">secular</span> government-sanctioned officiator, or (in weddings that have no church or state affiliation) by a trusted friend of the wedding participants. The act of marriage usually creates obligations between the individuals involved, and in many societies, their extended families.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Finding a partner</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Arranged marriage</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage in Europe</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">European monogamy</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Recognition</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Rights and obligations</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Polygamy</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage restrictions</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Weddings</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage and religion</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage and cohabitation</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Marriage and economics</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical traditions</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Modern conventions</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Taxation</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">10.4</span> <span class="toctext">Hypergyny and isogamy</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Same-sex marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Termination</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Criticisms of the institution of marriage</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">14.1</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">14.2</span> <span class="toctext">Lists and statistics</span></li><li class="toclevel-2"><span class="tocnumber">14.3</span> <span class="toctext">Related concepts</span></li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></li><li class="toclevel-1"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Finding_a_partner" id="Finding_a_partner"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Finding a partner</span></h2> <p>In order to get married, it is necessary to find a suitable partner. A partner may be found by the person wishing to be married through the process of courtship. Alternatively, two marriage candidates may be matched by a third party, typically with the match finalized only if both candidates approve of the union. This is known as an arranged marriage.</p> <p>The choice between courtship and arranged marriage is made by the person seeking marriage or by his or her parents. In some cases, the parents will be ready to enforce an arranged marriage because of cultural tradition or for some other special reason (e.g., dowry). It is worth noting however, that in many cases the person seeking marriage is comfortable with having his or her marriage arranged and, even disregarding parental preference, would freely choose an arranged marriage. Actual forced marriage is common in only a few communities and often attracts harsh criticism even from people who are generally in favor of arranged marriage.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Arranged_marriage" id="Arranged_marriage"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Arranged marriage</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img alt="An arranged marriage between Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Spain" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Lodewijk_XIV-Marriage.jpg/200px-Lodewijk_XIV-Marriage.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="151" width="200" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> An arranged marriage between <span class="mw-redirect">Louis XIV</span> of France and Maria Theresa of Spain</div> </div> </div> <p>A pragmatic (or 'arranged') marriage is made easier by formal procedures of family or group politics. A responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage; they may, indeed, engage a professional matchmaker to find a suitable spouse for an unmarried person. The authority figure could be parents, family, a religious official, or a group consensus.</p> <p>In some cases, the authority figure may choose a match for purposes other than marital harmony. Some of the most popular uses of arranged marriage are for dowry or immigration.</p> <p>Though now a rarity in Western countries, arranged marriages in countries such as India are still prevalent today.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> In rural villages, the marriage of a child often has much to do with family property. Parents adopt the practice of child marriage and arrange the wedding, sometimes even before the child is born (though this practice was made illegal by the <span class="new">Child Marriage Restraint Act</span> of the Indian Government). In urban India, people use thriving institutions known as Marriage Bureaus or <span class="mw-redirect">Matrimonials Sites</span>, where candidates register themselves for small fees.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> A related form of pragmatic marriage, sometimes called a marriage of convenience, involves immigration laws. According to one publisher of information about "green card" marriages, "Every year over 450,000 United States citizens marry foreign-born individuals and petition for them to obtain a permanent residency (Green Card) in the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference">[6]</sup> While this is likely an over-estimate, in 2003 alone 184,741 immigrants were admitted to the U.S. as spouses of U.S. citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference">[7]</sup></p> <p><a name="Marriage_in_Europe" id="Marriage_in_Europe"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Marriage in Europe</span></h2> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-style"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><small>.</small></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <table style="" class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"> <tbody><tr> <td class="ambox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><span class="image"><br /></span></div> </td> <td class="ambox-text"><b><br /></b></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A woodcut of a medieval wedding ceremony from Germany" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Brauysegen_im_Bett.gif/180px-Brauysegen_im_Bett.gif" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="215" width="180" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A woodcut of a medieval wedding ceremony from Germany</div> </div> </div> <p>Among Western cultures, the nuclear family emerged during the late medieval period.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference">[8]</sup> Marriage is the sole mechanism for the creation of <i>affinal ties</i> (in-laws).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Although the institution of marriage pre-dates reliable recorded history, many cultures have legends or religious beliefs concerning the origins of marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference">[9]</sup></p> <p>In Catholicism, the Council of Trent made the validity of marriage dependent upon its being performed before an ordained member of the clergy and two witnesses. The Council also authorized a Catechism, issued in 1566, which defined marriage as, "The conjugal union of man and woman, contracted between two qualified persons, which obliges them to live together throughout life."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference">[10]</sup> Marriage has changed throughout the history of Europe, in the 1200's in England it was unlawful for a woman younger than 24 years to marry, but this changed, beginning in the 1500's, to 20 years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference">[11]</sup></p> <p>In the Middle Ages the Church only allowed annulment for consanguinity and adultery but during the reformation, Luther and others made marriage a civil institution instead of a sacramental one. This made way for the rights of women to divorce their husbands for faults such as impotency.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference">[12]</sup></p> <p>In the United Kingdom, the Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907 was a statute passed by Parliament that removed the prohibition forbidding a man to marry the sister of his deceased wife.</p> <p><a name="European_monogamy" id="European_monogamy"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">European monogamy</span></h3> <p>European culture and the cultures of the Americas, so far as they descend from it, have for the most part defined themselves as monogamous cultures. This partially stemmed from Christianity, Germanic cultural traditions<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="The material in the vicinity of this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s) since April 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>verification needed</i>]</span></sup> and the mandate of <span class="mw-redirect">Roman Law</span>. However, Roman Law permitted prostitution, concubinage, and sexual access to slaves. The Christian West formally banned these practices with laws against adultery, fornication, and other relationships outside a monogamous, lifelong covenant.</p> <p><a name="Recognition" id="Recognition"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Recognition</span></h2> <p>The participants in a marriage usually seek social recognition for their relationship, and many societies require official approval of a religious or civil body.</p> <p>In the early modern era, John Calvin (1509 – 1564) and his <span class="mw-redirect">Protestant</span> colleagues reformulated Christian marriage through enactment of The Marriage Ordinance of Geneva,which imposes "The dual requirements of state registration and church consecration to constitute marriage."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference">[13]</sup></p> <p>In England and Wales, it was Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act 1753 that first required formal ceremony of marriage, thereby curtailing the practice of Fleet Marriage.</p> <p>In many jurisdictions, the civil marriage ceremony may take place during the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. In most American states, the marriage may be officiated by a priest, <span class="mw-redirect">minister</span>, rabbi or other religious authority, and in such a case the religious authority acts simultaneously as an agent of the state. In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is necessary to be married by the state separate from (usually before) any religious ceremony, with the state ceremony being the legally binding one. Some states allow civil marriages in circumstances which are not allowed by many religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.</p> <p>Marriage may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute." This is a judicial recognition that two people who have been living as domestic partners are entitled to the effects of marriage. However, in the UK at least, common-law marriage has been abolished and there are no rights available unless a couple marries or enters into a civil partnership. Conversely, there are examples of people who have a religious ceremony that is not recognized by the civil authorities. Examples include widows who stand to lose a pension if they remarry legally, same-sex couples (where same-sex marriage is not legally recognized), some sects which recognize polygamy, retired couples who would lose pension benefits if legally married, Muslim men who wish to engage in polygamy that is condoned in some situations under Islam, and immigrants who do not wish to alert the immigration authorities that they are married either to a spouse they are leaving behind or because the complexity of immigration laws may make it difficult for spouses to visit on a tourist visa.</p> <p>In Europe, it has traditionally been the churches' office to make marriages official by registering them. Hence, it was a significant step towards a clear separation of church and state and also an intended and sufficient weakening of the Christian churches' role in Germany, when Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced the <i>Zivilehe</i> (civil marriage) in 1875. This law made the declaration of the marriage before an official clerk of the civil administration (both spouses affirming their will to marry) the procedure to make a marriage legally valid and effective, and reduced the clerical marriage to an optional private ceremony.</p> <p><a name="Rights_and_obligations" id="Rights_and_obligations"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Rights and obligations</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A Ketubah in Aramaic, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partner." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/V03p128a01_Ketubah.jpg/200px-V03p128a01_Ketubah.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="265" width="200" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A Ketubah in Aramaic, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partner.</div> </div> </div> <p>Marriage sometimes:</p> <ul><li>establishes the legal father of a woman's child;</li><li>establishes the legal mother of a man's child;</li><li>gives the husband or his family control over the wife's sexual services, labor, and/or property;</li><li>gives the wife or her family control over the husband's sexual services, labor, and/or property;</li><li>establishes a joint fund of property for the benefit of children;</li><li>or establishes a relationship between the families of the husband and wife.</li></ul> <p>No society ascribes all of these rights to marriage, and none are universal<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference">[14]</sup>.</p> <p>Marriage is not a prerequisite for having children. In the U.S., the National Center for Health Statistics reported that in 1992, 30.1 percent of births were to unmarried women.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference">[15]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference">[16]</sup> In 2006, that number had risen to 38.5 percent. <sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference">[17]</sup> Some married couples remain childless by choice or due to infertility, age, or other factors preventing reproduction. In some cultures, marriage imposes upon women the <i>obligation</i> to bear children. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of <span class="mw-redirect">bridewealth</span> signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face substantial threats of physical abuse and reprisals.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference">[18]</sup></p> <p>Most of the world's major religions prescribe marriage prior to engaging in sexual intercourse.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference">[19]</sup> They teach that unmarried people should not have sex, which they refer to as fornication. Fornication is sometimes socially discouraged or even criminalized. Sex with a married person other than one's spouse, called adultery, is universally condemned by all major world religions, and has often been criminalized. It is also against the governing law of the U.S. military. Nevertheless, three recent studies in the U.S. using nationally representative samples have found that about 10-15% of women and 20-25% of men engage in extramarital sex.<sup id="cite_ref-Clements.2C1994_19-0" class="reference">[20]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Laumann.2CGagnon.2CMichael.2CMichaels.2C1994_20-0" class="reference">[21]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference">[22]</sup></p> <p>Conversely, a marriage is commonly held to require a sexual relationship, and non-consummation (that is, failure to engage in sex) may be held grounds for an annulment (e.g., John Ruskin's abortive marriage).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <dl><dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States</i></span></dd></dl> <p><a name="Polygamy" id="Polygamy"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Polygamy</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Polygamy</i></div> </dd><dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: Forms of nonmonogamy</i></span></dd></dl> <p>Polygamous marriage, in which a person takes more than one spouse, is accepted in a majority of global social traditions, though it is far less common than monogamy.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch_0-1" class="reference">[1]</sup> Africa has the highest rate of polygamy in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference">[23]</sup> In Senegal, for example, nearly 47 percent of marriages are multiple.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference">[24]</sup> Polygyny is the typical form of polygamy, while polyandry is rare.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference">[25]</sup> Anthropologists distinguish between these forms of multiple marriage, where one person separately marries more than one spouse, and group marriage, in which multiple spouses all become married to one another. The group marriage form of polygamy is rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch_0-2" class="reference">[1]</sup> In the U.S., the historic <span class="mw-redirect">Oneida Colony</span> provides a prominent <span class="mw-redirect">19th-century</span> example of a polygamous group marriage.</p> <p><a name="Marriage_restrictions" id="Marriage_restrictions"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriage restrictions</span></h2> <p>In 2004, the American Anthropological Association released this statement:<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference">[26]</sup></p> <blockquote> <p>The results of more than a century of <span class="mw-redirect">anthropological</span> research on households, kinship relationships, and families, across cultures and through time, provide no support whatsoever for the view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Rather, anthropological research supports the conclusion that a vast array of family types, including families built upon same-sex partnerships, can contribute to stable and humane societies.</p> </blockquote> <p>Many societies, even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize monogamy as the only valid form of marriage. For example, People's Republic of China shifted from allowing polygamy to supporting only monogamy in the Marriage Act of 1953 after the Communist revolution.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Polygamy is practiced illegally by some groups in the United States and Canada, primarily by <span class="mw-redirect">Mormon fundamentalist</span> <span class="mw-redirect">sects</span> that separated from the mainstream <span class="mw-redirect">Latter Day Saints</span> movement after the practice was renounced in 1890.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Many African and Islamic societies still allow polygamy.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Since the later decades of the 20th century, many ideas about the nature and purpose of marriage and family have been challenged in some countries, in particular by LGBT social movements, which argue that marriage should not be exclusively heterosexual. Some people also argue that marriage may be an unnecessary legal fiction.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> This follows from an overall shift in ideas and practices of family; since World War II, the West has seen a dramatic increase in divorce (6% to over 40% of first marriages),<sup id="cite_ref-istat07_26-0" class="reference">[27]</sup> cohabitation without marriage, a growing unmarried population, children born outside of marriage (5% to over 33% of births), and an increase in adultery (8% to over 40%)<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup>. Consequently, a <i>de facto</i> system of serial monogamy has emerged. On the other hand, demands for same-sex marriage have led to its legalization in some Western countries.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Six countries, and one state in the United States, have done so.</p> <p>Today, the term <i>marriage</i> is generally reserved for a union that is formally recognized by the state (although some people disagree). The phrase <i>legally married</i> can be used to emphasize this point. In the United States, there are two methods of receiving state recognition of a marriage: <span class="mw-redirect">common law marriage</span> and obtaining a marriage license. The majority of US states do not recognize <span class="mw-redirect">common law marriage</span>.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Other localities may support various types of domestic partnerships.</p> <p>Many countries regulate the age at which one can get married. As early as 1798, Thomas Malthus proposed delaying the <span class="mw-redirect">age of marriage</span> to alleviate overpopulation. Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In most societies, marriage between brothers and sisters has been forbidden, with Ancient Egyptian, Hawaiian, and Inca royalty being prominent exceptions. In many societies, marriage between <span class="mw-redirect">some first cousins</span> is preferred, while at the other extreme, the medieval Catholic church prohibited marriage even between distant cousins. The present day <span class="mw-redirect">Catholic Church</span> still maintains a standard of required distance (in both consanguinity and affinity) for marriage.</p> <p>In the Indian Hindu community, especially in the Brahmin caste, marrying a person of the same gotra was prohibited, since persons belonging to the same gotra are said to have identical <span class="mw-redirect">patrilineal</span> descent. In ancient India, when gurukuls existed, the <span class="new">shishyas</span> (pupils) were advised against marrying any of guru's children, as <span class="new">shishyas</span> were also considered the guru's children and it would be considered marriage among <span class="mw-redirect">siblings</span>. However, there were exceptions, including Arjuna's son Abhimanyu's marriage to Uttra, the dance student of Arjuna in <span class="mw-redirect">Mahabharata</span>. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 brought reforms in the area of same-gotra marriages, which were banned prior to the act's passage. Now the Indian constitution allows any consenting adult heterosexual couple (women 18 or older and men 21 or older) from any race, religion, caste, or creed to marry.</p> <p>Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry, such as prohibitions of marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal. Anthropologists refer to these sorts of restrictions as exogamy. One example is South Korea's general taboo against a man marrying a woman with the same family name. The most common surname in South Korea is Kim (almost 20%); however, there are several branches (or clans) in the Kim surname. (Korean family names are divided into one or more clans.) Only intra-clan marriages are prohibited, as they are considered one type of exogamy. Thus, many "Kim-Kim" couples can be found.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to these restrictions as endogamy. An example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe. Racist laws adopted by some societies in the past—such as Nazi-era Germany, <span class="mw-redirect">apartheid-era</span> South Africa and most of the United States in the nineteenth and the first half of the 20th century—which prohibited marriage between persons of different races could also be considered examples of endogamy. In the <span class="mw-redirect">U.S.</span>, laws banning interracial marriage, which were state laws, were gradually repealed between 1948 and 1967. The U.S. Supreme Court declared all such laws unconstitutional in the case of <i>Loving v. Virginia</i> in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference">[28]</sup></p> <p><a name="Weddings" id="Weddings"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Weddings</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Wedding</i></div> </dd></dl> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img alt="Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama, Gifu prefecture." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Shinto_married_couple.jpg/200px-Shinto_married_couple.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="301" width="200" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama, Gifu prefecture.</div> </div> </div> <p>A marriage may be celebrated with a <span class="mw-redirect">wedding ceremony</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference">[29]</sup> which can be performed by a religious officiator or through a similar government-sanctioned secular process. Despite the ceremony being led by someone else, most religious traditions maintain that the marriage itself is mediated between the two individuals through vows, with the gathered audience witnessing, affirming, and legitimizing the marriage.</p> <p>The ceremony in which a marriage is enacted and announced to the community is called a wedding. A wedding in which the participants marry in the "eyes of the law" is called a civil marriage. Religions also facilitate weddings, in the "eyes of God". In many European and some Latin American countries, a religious ceremony must be held separate from the civil ceremony. Certain countries, like Belgium, Bulgaria, the Netherlands and Turkey,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference">[30]</sup> demand that the civil marriage take place before any religious marriage. In some countries — notably the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Norway and Spain — both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and community ceremony also serves as an agent of the state to enact the civil marriage. That does not mean that the state is "recognizing" religious marriages — the "civil" ceremony just takes place at the same time as the religious ceremony. Often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony. If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted, no marriage took place in the eyes of the law.</p> <p>While some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location, others, including England, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place specially sanctioned by law (i.e., a church or registry office), and be open to the public. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office.</p> <p>The way in which a marriage is enacted has changed over time, as has the institution of marriage itself. In Europe during the Middle Ages, marriage was enacted by the couple promising verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or other witnesses was not required. This promise was known as the "verbum". If made in the present tense (e.g. "I marry you"), it was unquestionably binding; if made in the future tense ("I will marry you"), it would constitute a betrothal, but if the couple proceeded to have sexual relations, the union was a marriage. As part of the <span class="mw-redirect">Reformation</span>, the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to the state; by the 1600s many of the Protestant European countries had heavy state involvement in marriage. As part of the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church added a <span class="mw-redirect">requirement</span> of witnesses to the promise, which under normal circumstances had to include the priest.</p> <p><a name="Marriage_and_religion" id="Marriage_and_religion"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriage and religion</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Religious aspects of marriage</span></i></div> </dd></dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img alt="A couple being wed alongside the Tungabhadra River at Hampi, India." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Muslim_wedding_in_India.jpg/200px-Muslim_wedding_in_India.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="134" width="200" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> A couple being wed alongside the Tungabhadra River at Hampi, India.</div> </div> </div> <p>Many religions have broad teachings regarding marriage. Most Christian <span class="mw-redirect">churches</span> <span class="mw-redirect">blessing</span> the couple being married; the wedding ceremony sometimes involves a pledge by the community to support the couple's relationship. <span class="mw-redirect">Religious communities</span> widely hold marriage as a relationship uniquely allegorical to God's relationship with the people; the husband represents God and the bride represents the whole of God's chosen people.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Liturgical Christian communions—notably Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy—consider marriage (sometimes termed <i>holy matrimony</i>) to be an expression of grace, termed a <i>sacrament</i> or <i>mystery</i>. In Western ritual, the sacrament is bestowed upon a husband and wife by the spouses themselves, with a bishop, priest, or deacon normally witnessing the union on behalf of the church. In Eastern ritual churches, the clergyman functions as the minister. Western Christians commonly term marriage a vocation, while Eastern Christians term it an ordination and a martyrdom, though the theological emphases indicated by the various names are not excluded by the teachings of either tradition. Marriage is commonly celebrated in the context of a Eucharistic service (a nuptial Mass or Divine Liturgy). The sacrament of marriage is indicative of the relationship between Christ and the Church, yet most Reformed Christians would deny the elevation of marriage to the status of a sacrament. Nevertheless it is considered a covenant between spouses before God.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In Judaism, marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a man and a woman come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference">[31]</sup> Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference">[32]</sup> The main focus centers around the relationship between the husband and wife. Kabbalistically, marriage is understood to mean that the husband and wife are merging together into a single soul. This is why a man is considered "incomplete" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference">[33]</sup></p> <p>Islam also recommends marriage highly; among other things, it helps in the pursuit of spiritual perfection. Age of marriage is whenever the individuals feel ready, financially and emotionally, for marriage. It should also be noted that in Islam, marriage is not a religious concept as it is in many religions, but a civil contract between a man and a woman.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, recommended that people marry as an assistance to themselves in their well-being, but did not make it obligatory; he explained that it is both a physical and spiritual bond that endures into the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-oneworld_33-0" class="reference">[34]</sup> Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the religion, stated that marriage is a foundation for the structure of human society.<sup id="cite_ref-oneworld_33-1" class="reference">[34]</sup> A Bahá'í marriage requires the consent of the couple, and then of all living parents, as to strengthen the ties between the families and avoid enmity.<sup id="cite_ref-oneworld_33-2" class="reference">[34]</sup></p> <p>Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. Old Hindu literature in Sanskrit gives many different types of marriages and their categorization ranging from "Gandharva Vivaha" (instant marriage by mutual consent of participants only, without any need for even a single third person as witness) to normal (present day) marriages, to "Rakshasa Vivaha" (marriage performed by abduction of one participant by the other participant, usually, but not always, with the help of other persons). There are elaborate laws in <span class="mw-redirect">Manusmriti</span> directing which castes and which varnas can marry which castes, and the penalties for breaking these nuptial laws.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>For the most part, religious traditions in the world reserve marriage to heterosexual unions, but there are exceptions including <span class="mw-redirect">Unitarian Universalist</span>, Metropolitan Community Church and some Anglican dioceses and <span class="mw-redirect">Quaker</span>, United Church of Canada and Reform Jewish congregations.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference">[35]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-united_35-0" class="reference">[36]</sup></p> <p><a name="Marriage_and_cohabitation" id="Marriage_and_cohabitation"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriage and cohabitation</span></h2> <p>Marriage is an institution which can join together people's lives in emotional and economic ways. Marriage can also lead to the formation of a new household, but among some people (e.g. the Minangkabau of West Sumatra), residency after marriage is <span class="mw-redirect">matrilocal</span>, with the husband moving into the pre-existing household of his wife's mother.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference">[37]</sup> Residency after marriage can also be <span class="mw-redirect">patrilocal</span> or avunculocal.</p> <p>In many Western cultures, married people usually live together in the same home, often sharing the same bed, but in some other regions this is not the tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference">[38]</sup> In southwestern China, for example, walking marriages, in which the husband and wife do not live together, have been a traditional part of the Mosuo culture.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference">[39]</sup> Walking marriages have also been increasingly common in modern Beijing. Guo Jianmei, director of the center for women's studies at Beijing University, told a Newsday correspondent, "Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference">[40]</sup> A similar arrangement in Saudi Arabia, called misyar marriage, also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting regularly.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference">[41]</sup></p> <p>Conversely, marriage is not a prerequisite for cohabitation. In one study, Jay Teachman, a researcher at Western Washington University, studied premarital cohabitation of women who are in a monogamous relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference">[42]</sup> Teachman’s study showed "women who are committed to one relationship, who have both premarital sex and cohabit only with the man they eventually marry, have no higher incidence of divorce than women who abstain from premarital sex and cohabitation. For women in this category, premarital sex and cohabitation with their eventual husband are just two more steps in developing a committed, long-term relationship."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference">[43]</sup></p> <p><a name="Marriage_and_economics" id="Marriage_and_economics"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Marriage and economics</span></h2> <p><a name="Historical_traditions" id="Historical_traditions"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Historical traditions</span></h3> <p>The economics of marriage have changed over time. Historically, in many cultures the family of the bride had to provide a dowry to pay a man for marrying their daughter. In Early Modern Britain, the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal. After the marriage, the entire property (called "fortune") and expected inheritances of the wife belonged only to her husband (a frequent subject in Early Modern British literature); she was often called "his property", which did then include the protection a single woman did not have. In other cultures, the family of the groom had to pay a bride price to the bride's family for the right to marry the daughter. In some cultures, dowries and bride prices are still demanded today. In both cases, the financial transaction takes place between the groom (or his family) and the bride's family; the bride has no part in the transaction and often no choice in whether to participate in the marriage.</p> <p>In some cultures, dowries were not unconditional gifts. If the groom had other children, they could not inherit the dowry, which had to go to the bride's children. In the event of her childlessness, the dowry had to return to her family, and sometimes not until the groom's death or remarriage. Often the bride was entitled to inherit at least as much as her dowry from her husband's estate.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><span class="mw-redirect">Morning gifts</span>, which might also be arranged by the bride's father rather than the bride, are given to the bride herself; the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the wedding night. She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband, but is entitled to it when widowed. If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement, it may be called dower. Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement, she may not be entitled to dispose of it after her death, and may lose the property if she remarries. Morning gifts were preserved for many centuries in morganatic marriage, a union where the wife's inferior social status was held to prohibit her children from inheriting a noble's titles or estates. In this case, the morning gift would support the wife and children. Another legal provision for widowhood was jointure, in which property, often land, would be held in joint tenancy, so that it would automatically go to the widow on her husband's death.</p> <p><a name="Modern_conventions" id="Modern_conventions"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Modern conventions</span></h3> <p>In many modern legal systems, two people who marry have the choice between keeping their property separate or combining their property. In the latter case, called community property, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half; if one partner dies the surviving partner owns half and inheritance rules apply to the other half.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> In many legal jurisdictions, laws related to property and inheritance provide by default for property to pass upon the death of one party in a marriage to the spouse first and secondarily to the children. Wills and trusts can make alternative provisions for property succession.</p> <p>In some legal systems, the partners in a marriage are "jointly liable" for the debts of the marriage. This has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the "Doctrine of Necessities" whereby a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife. Where this is the case, one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract. Critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage. The cost of defence and the burden of proof is then placed on the non-contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family. The respective maintenance obligations, both during and eventually after a marriage, are regulated in most jurisdictions; alimony is one such method.</p> <p>Some have attempted to analyse the institution of marriage using economic theory; for example, <span class="mw-redirect">anarcho-capitalist</span> economist David Friedman has written a lengthy and controversial study of marriage as a market transaction (the market for husbands and wives).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference">[44]</sup></p> <p><a name="Taxation" id="Taxation"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Taxation</span></h3> <p>Most countries use progressive taxes, in which the tax rate is higher for a taxpayer with a higher income.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since October 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> In some of these countries, spouses are allowed to average their incomes; this is advantageous to a married couple with disparate incomes. To compensate for this somewhat, many countries provide a <i>higher</i> tax bracket for the averaged income of a married couple. While income averaging might still benefit a married couple with a stay-at-home spouse, such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons. This is commonly called the marriage penalty.</p> <p>Moreover, when the rates applied by the tax code are not based on averaging the incomes, but rather on the <i>sum</i> of individuals' incomes, higher rates will definitely apply for two-earner households in progressive tax systems. This is most often the case with high-income taxpayers and is another situation where some consider there to be a marriage penalty.</p> <p><a name="Hypergyny_and_isogamy" id="Hypergyny_and_isogamy"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Hypergyny and isogamy</span></h3> <p>In <span class="mw-redirect">social science</span>, <b>hypergyny</b> refers to the phenomenon in which women tend to marry men that are of slightly higher social status.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference">[45]</sup></p> <p>In some cultures, women are expected to marry a spouse who is more economically, socially, or politically powerful. Known as <span class="mw-redirect">hypergyny</span>, this practice is common in India.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Though an expected social norm in America, hypergyny is slowly being replaced by isogamy, marriage between equals, and the marrying 'down' of woman.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup> Many anthropologists ascribe this to increased gender equality between women and men.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p><a name="Same-sex_marriage" id="Same-sex_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Same-sex marriage</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main articles: Same-sex marriage and Same-sex union</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Since 2001, five nations have made same-sex marriage legal, namely the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, and South Africa. Israel, Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles recognize same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions. In the United States, Massachusetts and Iowa are the only states to recognize same-sex marriage under the name <i>marriage</i>. (The district court in Iowa which struck down the state's Defense of Marriage Act issued a stay on the ruling the next day, only one same sex couple has been married under Iowa law <sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference">[46]</sup>) <span class="mw-redirect">Civil unions</span> are a separate form of legal union open to couples of the same sex, often carrying the same entailments as opposite-sex marriage under a different name. Denmark was the first country in the world (in 1989) to extend the rights and responsibilities of marriage to same-sex couples under the name of registered partnership. Civil unions (and registered partnerships) are currently recognized in 24 out of 193 countries worldwide and in some U.S. states. Many U.S. states have adopted referendums or laws that generally restrict marriage recognition to opposite-sex couples. Federally, the U.S. Senate has considered, and failed to pass, a Federal Marriage Amendment. In Australia, de facto relationships are legally recognized in many, but not all, ways,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference">[47]</sup> <sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference">[48]</sup> with some states having registers of de facto relationships, although the federal government has amended existing legislation to specify that only marriages between a man and a woman will be recognized as 'marriages'. <sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference">[49]</sup>. As a result, the Australian Capital Territory's 2006 Bill to give civil unions identical status and processes as registered marriages, was repealed by the federal government before it came into effect.</p> <p>Civil unions are recognized and accepted in approximately 30 countries. Same-sex marriages have also been recorded in the history of pre-modern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference">[50]</sup> However, in countries where it has been adopted, applications for marriage licenses have far exceeded governmental estimates of demand.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference">[51]</sup> As homosexuality has become more accepted in Western cultures, more governments are allowing and/or sanctioning unions of same-sex couples.</p> <p>These developments have created a political and religious reaction in some countries, including in England, where the Church of England, after long debate, officially banned blessings of gay couples by Church of England clergy,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference">[52]</sup> and in the United States, where several states have specifically defined marriage as between a man and a woman, often after popular referendums, including the state of Mississippi which passed a constitutional amendment defining marriage as between a man and a woman and refusing to recognize same-sex marriages from other states with 86% of the vote supporting that proposition. <span class="PDFlink"><span class="external autonumber">[3]</span></span><span style="font-size: smaller;">PDF (29.9 KiB)</span> Conversely, two states, California and Massachusetts, have sanctioned some form of same-sex unions. In addition, Lutheran churches in Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden and some Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany allow blessing ceremonies for same-sex couples. In other countries, (such as Finland) such ceremonies are discouraged and rarely performed by the church.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Civil unions are a separate form of legal union open to couples of the same sex. Many more countries have legalized civil unions than those which have legalized same-sex marriage. Some religious denominations ceremonially perform civil unions, and recognize them as essentially equivalent to marriage.</p> <p><a name="Termination" id="Termination"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Termination</span></h2> <p>In most societies, the death of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period. In English speaking countries, the spouse who outlives the other is referred to as a widow (female) or widower (male). Many societies also provide for the termination of marriage through divorce. Marriages can also be annulled in some societies, where an authority declares that a marriage never happened.</p> <p>Several cultures have practiced temporary and conditional marriages. Examples include the Celtic practice of handfasting and fixed-term marriages in the Muslim community. Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in the practice of <span class="mw-redirect">Nikah Mut'ah</span>, a fixed-term marriage contract. Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut'ah have resulted in the practice being confined mostly to <span class="mw-redirect">Shi'ite</span> communities.</p> <p><a name="Criticisms_of_the_institution_of_marriage" id="Criticisms_of_the_institution_of_marriage"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Criticisms of the institution of marriage</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Criticisms of the institution of marriage</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Criticisms of marriage appear as ancient as the institution itself. (<span class="mw-redirect">Plato's Republic</span>, which recommends group marriage, is a famous early critique.) Commentators have often been critical of individual local practices and traditions, often leading to evolution in the institution. (For instance, the early Catholic Church's efforts to eliminate concubinage and temporary marriage, the Protestant authorization of divorce, the abolition in the 18th, 19th and 20th century of laws against inter-faith and inter-race marriages in Western countries, etc.)</p> <p>Many contemporary critiques have developed from a feminist viewpoint and suggest that modern marriage can be particularly disadvantageous to women economically and socially. In a contrasting vein, <span class="mw-redirect">father's rights</span> advocates claim that a continuing societal bias towards women as custodial parents in the face of "no-fault" divorce laws is unjust to men when marriages fail. Criticisms of marriage by same-sex rights movements focus on the widespread exclusion of homosexual relationships from the legal and social sanction it provides.</p> <p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline"><br /></span></h2> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><span class="image"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;"><br /><div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><span class="extiw">Marriage</span></b></i></div> </div> </div> <p><a name="Types" id="Types"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Types</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: Types of marriages</i></div> </dd></dl> <ul><li>Arranged marriage - marital partners are chosen by others. Marriage has fulfilled a role of diplomacy between monarchies and other dynastic contexts, such as business families. As marriages may be arranged for the union of families or other interests, love is not a universal prerequisite for marriage.</li><li>Boston marriage - marriage-like relationship between two women, not necessarily sexual.</li><li>Celestial marriage - a marriage within an LDS temple, where it is taught it can last forever.</li><li>Chinese marriage - arrangement between families.</li><li>Common-law marriage - class of interpersonal status.</li><li>Confarreatio and <span class="mw-redirect">coemptio</span>, two Roman forms of marriage</li><li>Covenant marriage - in some U.S. states, a form of marriage where divorce is made more difficult.</li><li>Digital marriage - two people who have no connection outside their gaming lives come together within a virtual community.</li><li>Fleet Marriage - Clandestine marriage in 18th century England in the vicinity of Fleet Prison.</li><li>Group marriage - Marriage between couples</li><li>Levirate marriage</li><li>Marriage of convenience</li><li><span class="mw-redirect">Mut'ah</span> (temporary marriage in Islam banned by Sunnis but still practiced by Shias)</li><li>Morganatic marriage</li><li>Open marriage</li><li>Polygamy</li><li>Proxy marriage - Ceremony in which the bride, the groom, or both are not physically present and use stand-ins</li><li>Same-sex marriage</li><li>Sexless marriage - Marriage without sexual intercourse</li><li>Sororate marriage</li></ul> <p><a name="Lists_and_statistics" id="Lists_and_statistics"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Lists and statistics</span></h3> <span class="image"><img alt="Marital Status in the U.S." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f4/Maritalstatus.jpg/333px-Maritalstatus.jpg" class="thumbimage" border="0" height="313" width="333" /></span> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" height="11" width="15" /></span></div> Marital Status in the U.SUnknownnoreply@blogger.com0